Mu Chong

1. Overview

Mu Chong (무정^Korean, 1904-1952), born Kim Mu-chong (김무정^Korean) and also known as Kim Byong-hee (김병희^Korean), was a prominent Korean communist, independence activist, military general, and statesman in North Korea. Having spent years in China, he played a significant role in the Chinese Communist Party's revolutionary movements, including participation in the Long March. Following Korea's liberation from Japanese rule, he returned to North Korea and became a general in the nascent Korean People's Army (KPA), rising to a high-ranking position within the Yan'an faction, a group of pro-China communists in the early North Korean government. His career was marked by significant contributions to both the Chinese and Korean revolutionary causes and the Korean War, but also by internal political conflicts that ultimately led to his downfall and purge. This article details Mu Chong's life, his revolutionary and military career in China and Korea, his eventual removal from power, and his complex legacy in the context of North Korean political history.

2. Early Life and Education

Mu Chong was born on May 16, 1904, in Yongseong-myeon, Gyeongseong-gun, North Hamgyong Province, then part of the Korean Empire. His birth name was Kim Byong-hee, and his courtesy name was Myeongseok. He later adopted the alias Mu Chong. His birthplace is sometimes disputed between Gyeongseong-gun and Chongjin, as Yongseong-myeon was incorporated into Chongjin Prefecture in March 1940. There are varying accounts of his birth year, with some sources suggesting 1905 or 1902. He was the son of Kim Ki-jun (also known as Kim Hyun-geuk, 김현극^Korean) and Jongsan (종산^Korean). His father was a wealthy landholder, owning properties valued at approximately 13.00 K JPY at the time, indicating the family's comfortable background. Mu Chong inherited his father's impulsive personality.

He attended Cheonma Elementary School in Yongseong-myeon from 1910, graduating in 1916. He then transferred to Nanam Public Ordinary School and later attended Gyeongseong Agricultural School in Gyeongseong-myeon, which he eventually left. He subsequently transferred to Gyeongsin Middle School in Gyeongseong (present-day Seoul), where he participated in the nationwide March 1st Movement in 1919. In October of the same year, he entered Central Higher Ordinary School but was expelled in March 1922. After his expulsion, he worked as a laborer before enrolling in the evening division of the Gyeongseong Christian Youth Hall in April, where he studied Chinese, Japanese, and English. In February 1923, he joined the Gyeongseong Youth Hall and became exposed to communist ideology through contacts with figures like Yi Yeong. In March 1923, he left the Youth Hall and traveled on foot across the Yalu River to Manchuria, eventually reaching Beijing, China. His family believed he was studying in Japan and sent remittances to Tokyo, which were returned. His defection to China led his family to be placed under close surveillance by the Joseon Government-General.

Upon arriving in China, Mu Chong enrolled in a short course in artillery at the Baoding Military Academy in Baoding, Hebei province, graduating in March 1924.

3. Revolutionary Activities in China

Mu Chong's revolutionary career in China began swiftly after his military training. After graduating from the Baoding Military Academy in March 1924, he was commissioned as an artillery lieutenant in the Chinese National Revolutionary Army, assigned to the forces of Yan Xishan. He was rapidly promoted to artillery captain in early 1925 and then to lieutenant colonel.

In 1925, he joined the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in Beijing, though some accounts suggest he joined in Zhangjiakou, Shanghai. He subsequently moved to Shanghai, working with the CCP's Shanghai Korean Branch before relocating to Ruijin, Jiangxi province, a major base for the CCP's Red Army. There, he formally joined the Red Army as a captain and participated in battles against Nationalist Party forces as an artillery officer.

In 1927, facing an arrest warrant from the Nationalist government, Mu Chong went underground, engaging in clandestine activities. He was arrested in Wuchang and sentenced to death by a military court. However, he managed to escape with the help of comrades amidst protests by 10,000 Chinese students demanding his release. He fled to Shanghai and was arrested again in 1929 for orchestrating the Shanghai workers' uprising, receiving a two-month prison sentence. After his release, he traveled to Hong Kong.

In June 1930, Mu Chong joined Peng Dehuai's Red Army 5th Army in Yangxin, Hubei province. During a skirmish with Japanese forces, he fired over 20 artillery shells, with more than 10 directly hitting Japanese tanks and naval vessels, forcing their retreat. This action earned him a reputation as a legendary artillery hero within the Red Army. In July 1930, the Red Army organized its first mountain artillery company in Pingjiang, Hunan province. Due to ongoing disorganization, Mu Chong was appointed the third commander of this unit by the end of 1930.

He participated in the establishment of the Chinese Soviet Republic in Ruijin in 1931. In May 1931, the Red Army Central Military Commission Artillery Command was established in Pitou, Jiangxi. Following the initial commander's errors, Mu Chong became the second commander of the Red Army Central Military Commission Artillery Command in June. He also became a member of the CCP's Military Commission and an instructor in the artillery branch of the Red Army Special Forces School.

In 1934, when the CCP forces, defeated by Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist army, began their historic Long March from Ruijin to Yan'an, Mu Chong, as a member of the CCP Military Commission, joined the arduous journey. He served as the commander and political commissar of the 3rd Echelon of the Central Military Commission's 1st Column, later becoming the commander of the Red Army 3rd Army Corps Artillery Battalion. Of the more than 30 Koreans who began the Long March, only Mu Chong and Yang Lin survived to reach northern Shaanxi province. In November 1935, he was appointed commander of the Red Army School Special Operations Battalion. He entered the first class of the Red Army University in June 1936 and graduated in December of the same year. He then served as head of the artillery department, chief of the artillery section, and second principal of the Red Army Special Forces School.

In August 1937, with the reorganization of the Red Army into the Eighth Route Army, Mu Chong became the head of the Eighth Route Army General Headquarters Operations Section. In October of that year, he was dispatched to Linfen, Shanxi province, to establish an artillery unit. Using an artillery company in Wangzhuang as its core, he absorbed guerrilla units from Fenyang and Xiaoyi and armed them with eight mountain guns abandoned by Yan Xishan's forces. On January 28, 1938, the Eighth Route Army General Headquarters Artillery Regiment was officially formed in Liucunzhen, Linfen, with Mu Chong as its commander. In August 1938, his unit cooperated with the 115th Division to ambush Japanese forces on the Fenli Highway. The 115th Division lauded him, stating that "our Commander Mu can train excellent artillerymen," and he received commendation from Mao Zedong and Zhu De. In September 1939, he joined the 115th Division's 688th Regiment in an attack on Gucheng in Hebei. In the spring of 1940, he collaborated with infantry units to repel forces led by Shi Yousan and Zhu Huaibing, who were advancing on the Taihang Mountains base. In August 1940, he participated in the Hundred Regiments Offensive. During his time with the Eighth Route Army, he also served as an aide to Peng Dehuai, who reportedly arranged his marriage to Deng Qi, his second wife.

4. Independence Movement Leadership

Mu Chong's activities in China also extended to leading Korean independence movements, cementing his role as a prominent anti-Japanese activist. In January 1941, he played a pivotal role in founding the North China Korean Youth Alliance in Shanxi province. This organization was later expanded and renamed the North China Korean Independence Alliance in 1942. In October 1941, he participated in the Pan-Asian Anti-Fascist Alliance, formed in Yan'an, China. From June 1941 to April 1942, he integrated those members of the Korean Volunteer Corps who opposed its alignment with the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea into his growing force, thereby expanding his influence.

From July 10 to 14, 1942, Mu Chong participated in the second conference of the Korean Youth Alliance. On July 10, he was involved in the formation of the Korean Independence Alliance (조선독립동맹^Korean), an expanded and reorganized version of the North China Korean Independence Alliance. He was elected as a member of the Central Executive Committee of the Korean Independence Alliance, alongside figures such as Ho Jong-suk and Choe Chang-ik. On July 14, upon the arrival of soldiers from the Korean Youth Alliance to Hebei, he, along with Kim Tu-bong and Bak Hyo-sam, established the Korean Volunteer Army (조선의용군^Korean) in She County, Hebei province, assuming the position of its Commander-in-Chief. In November 1942, he established the North China Korean Youth Revolutionary School and served as its principal.

During his stay in China, Mu Chong also formed the Korea-China Alliance, a friendship organization involving Chinese Communist Party figures, alongside Choe Chang-ik in 1939.

5. Post-Liberation North Korean Career

After the liberation of Korea on August 15, 1945, Mu Chong returned to North Korea, but his homecoming was complicated by the political landscape. Although he intended to return with the Korean Volunteer Army, the Soviet forces occupying North Korea disarmed his soldiers to prevent the influence of the Chinese Communist Party, requiring him to return in a personal capacity. This incident, combined with his existing fame and independent spirit, caused tension with Kim Il Sung and the Soviet military. Mu Chong openly criticized Kim Il Sung and the Soviets during his public speeches, leading Kim Il Sung to view him as a formidable political rival from the outset.

Even before his return, Mu Chong's stature was recognized; he was selected as the Vice-Chairman of the North Korean Five-Province Administrative Bureau, a precursor to the People's Committee. In October 1945, Mu Chong, refusing to acknowledge either the Korean Communist Party reconstruction faction in Gyeongseong or the Jang'an faction, organized a separate committee to promote the reconstruction of the Korean Communist Party in Pyongyang. In November 1945, he personally went to Pyongyang Station to support the resettlement of returning Korean Volunteer Army members. He then became the second secretary of the North Korean Branch Bureau of the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK), and later its first secretary on December 17, 1945.

From late December 1945, when Kim Gu strongly opposed the Moscow Three-Power Conference's decision on trusteeship, Mu Chong initially joined the National General Mobilization Committee against Trusteeship and Reform, formed on December 30. However, when the Workers' Party shifted its stance to favor trusteeship, Mu Chong also aligned himself with the pro-trusteeship position.

In February 1946, during his stay in Pyongyang, he was chosen as one of the delegates to the Nationalist Democratic Front, an organization established in Seoul. That same year, he was appointed Deputy Commander of Artillery for the Security Officer Training Battalion. Despite being classified as pro-Chinese due to his activities in China, he encountered friction with China over the Gando (Jiandao) issue. On May 10, 1947, in the presence of Choe Yong-gon and other People's Liberation Army officers, Mu Chong asserted that "Joseon must obtain Gando in return for the blood shed by Korean soldiers in the Manchurian War." Data published by the Ministry of Unification of the Republic of Korea indicates that differences of opinion between North Korea and China regarding the ownership of Mount Paektu also emerged around 1948. Despite his position as Second Secretary of the Workers' Party, Kim Il Sung demoted him to the artillery commander of the Security Officer Training Battalion in 1946.

Mu Chong was re-elected to the WPK Central Committee in March 1948. After the establishment of the Korean People's Army (KPA) in February 1948, he was appointed Commander of the KPA 2nd Command Center. Following the formal establishment of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) on September 9, 1948, he became the Vice Minister of National Security. He participated in the first inter-Korean negotiations in April 1948 and the second inter-Korean negotiations held in Haeju in August. On September 2, he was elected as a delegate to the 1st Supreme People's Assembly.

Mu Chong often boasted of his extensive revolutionary career, leading to frequent clashes with Kim Il Sung. Despite his military experience and theoretical knowledge, which surpassed other factions within North Korea, his faction, the Yan'an faction, was hindered by the Soviet-backed Manchurian faction led by Kim Il Sung, preventing them from securing key positions. Mu Chong's straightforward and rigid personality, coupled with his lack of political maneuvering skills, worsened his standing by openly criticizing Kim Il Sung's personality cult.

6. Korean War Service

When the Korean War erupted on June 25, 1950, Mu Chong actively participated as a high-ranking commander. He served concurrently as the Vice Minister of National Security, Artillery Commander of the Korean People's Army, and Commander of the KPA 2nd Army Corps. He took over command of the 2nd Army Corps in July 1950, replacing Kim Kwang-hyop, who was demoted after failing to adequately defeat the South Korean forces during the initial advances, specifically during the Battle of Chuncheon.



The 2nd Army Corps advanced deep into the southern part of the Korean Peninsula during the initial North Korean offensive. However, following the Inchon Landing Operation and the subsequent major counter-offensive by the South Korean and UN forces, his unit suffered a significant defeat. Mu Chong faced criticism for ordering the arbitrary execution of his subordinates, which contributed to his removal from command. He was subsequently reassigned as the Pyongyang Defense Commander.

Despite his efforts, he was unable to hold back the relentless advances of the South Korean and UN forces, leading to the fall of Pyongyang. This failure resulted in his further demotion to Commander of the 7th Army Corps.

7. Downfall and Purge

Mu Chong's military setbacks and controversial actions during the Korean War ultimately led to his downfall and purge from the North Korean leadership. In November 1950, after the KPA's defeat by the United States Army and subsequent retreat from the Nakdong River front, Mu Chong was relieved of his command of the 2nd Army Corps and reassigned as the 7th Army Corps Commander, stationed in Jagang Province.

A critical incident occurred while he was patrolling Manpo in Jagang Province. He encountered an injured soldier, a former member of the Chinese Eighth Route Army who was close to Mu Chong. Mu Chong immediately took the soldier to a field hospital and requested medical treatment from Lee Cheong-san (이청산^Korean), head of the Sanitary Division of the North Pyongan Provincial People's Committee, who also served as a military doctor. However, Lee Cheong-san, citing a heavy workload, refused. Enraged, Mu Chong reportedly fired his gun as a warning, but Lee Cheong-san was killed on the spot.



This incident at the North Pyongan Field Military Hospital became a serious charge against Mu Chong. He was immediately dismissed from his position. On December 4, 1950, at a special plenary session of the Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea held in Byeol-ri, Manpo-gun, before the 3rd Plenary Session could convene, he was purged. The charges against him included disobedience to orders, disloyalty within the fighting organization, and illegal murder during the retreat. He was subsequently referred to a military trial by the Korean People's Army. This swift action to remove Mu Chong was crucial for Kim Il Sung, especially given the presence of a large number of Chinese People's Volunteer Army troops in North Korea at the time, which could have bolstered Mu Chong's influence. Unlike Mu Chong, almost all other individuals disciplined at this party meeting were later rehabilitated and reinstated.

After his removal from military service, Mu Chong was stripped of his military rank and assigned to a prisoner unit, working as a team leader at the construction site of the Moranbong underground theater in Pyongyang. His chronic gastric disease worsened during this time. With the assistance of Peng Dehuai, then commander of the Chinese People's Volunteer Army, he was transferred to a Chinese People's Liberation Army hospital in Beijing, China. Despite receiving special treatment in China, his condition did not improve. Upon his request, he was permitted by Kim Il Sung to return to North Korea. He died shortly after his return, in October 1952, at the KPA's 39th Army Hospital on the outskirts of Pyongyang. While the official cause of death was attributed to his gastric disease, some reports suggest he was executed as part of the purge. His remains were initially interred at the Patriotic Martyrs' Cemetery in Pyongyang.

8. Legacy and Historical Evaluation

Mu Chong's death marked the definitive decline of the Yan'an faction, which was one of the key power bases in North Korea's early political landscape. Although he died in 1952, the Yan'an faction that he once led was systematically dismantled through subsequent purges, notably the August Faction Incident in 1956 and the purge of Choe Chang-ik in 1958. This series of events solidified Kim Il Sung's one-man dictatorship.

Mu Chong's historical portrayal in North Korea has been complex and shifting, influenced by the prevailing political narrative.

9. Personal Life and Family

Mu Chong's personal life involved multiple marriages and family relationships, reflecting his long and varied revolutionary career across different countries.

His first wife was a Korean woman, whose name is not recorded in available sources. They married in 1920 in Gyeongseong, North Hamgyong Province, through an arranged marriage by his family. The following year, their son, Kim Jeong-sin (김정신^Korean), was born. This marriage ended in divorce during his long stay in China. Kim Jeong-sin is reported to have died before 1945.

In China, Mu Chong remarried to a Chinese woman named Deng Qi (腾绮^Chinese, died 1982). She was the younger sister of Deng Daiyuan (滕代远^Chinese), a political commissar of Peng Dehuai's Red Army 5th Army, who had become close with Mu Chong. Mu Chong and Deng Qi had two children: a daughter, Deng Yeon-ryeo (등연려^Korean), born in 1943, and a son, Deng Yeon-jin (등연진^Korean), born in 1944. Their names were reportedly chosen by Choe Yong-gon. Initially, the children were given the surname Mu (무^Korean) as their father was known as Mu Chong, but they later adopted their mother's surname, Deng. Deng Yeon-jin passed away in 1970 from colon cancer. Mu Chong divorced Deng Qi in May 1945, before his return to Korea, and she later remarried a Chinese man.

After returning to Korea, Mu Chong married for a third time to a Korean woman named Kim Young-suk (김영숙^Korean).

His parents were Kim Ki-jun (김기준^Korean, also known as Kim Hyun-geuk, 김현극^Korean) and Jongsan (종산^Korean). He also had a younger brother, Kim In-dong (김인동^Korean).

10. Associated Figures and Events

Mu Chong's life and career were deeply intertwined with many pivotal figures and historical events of the 20th century, particularly within the contexts of the Chinese Revolution and the Korean independence movement.

Key associated figures include:

• Kim Il Sung: The supreme leader of North Korea, whose consolidation of power led to Mu Chong's downfall.
• Peng Dehuai: A prominent Chinese Communist military leader whom Mu Chong served under in the Red Army and who later assisted Mu Chong during his final illness.
• Kim Tu-bong: Leader of the Korean Independence Alliance, under whom Mu Chong served as Commander-in-Chief of the Korean Volunteer Army.
• Choe Chang-ik: A key figure of the Yan'an faction and a close associate of Mu Chong in the independence movement, though they also had disagreements.
• Ho Jong-suk: A Korean communist and independence activist who worked with Mu Chong in China.
• Kim Won-bong: Leader of the Korean Volunteer Corps, from which Mu Chong's Korean Volunteer Army was formed.
• Kim Kwang-hyop: A KPA general whom Mu Chong replaced as commander of the 2nd Army Corps during the Korean War.
• Yang Lin: Another Korean communist who, like Mu Chong, was one of the few Koreans to survive the Long March.
• Yu Seong-cheol: A KPA officer who provided insights into Mu Chong's personality.
• Ju Yeong-bok: A former KPA engineer officer who provided critical accounts of Mu Chong's behavior.
• Lee Cheong-san (이청산^Korean): The North Pyongan Provincial People's Committee Sanitary Division head whose killing by Mu Chong directly contributed to his purge.
• Deng Daiyuan: Chinese Communist military and political figure, brother of Mu Chong's second wife.
• Pak Il-u: A Korean communist who competed with Mu Chong for the trust of the Chinese Communist Party.

Significant historical events associated with Mu Chong include:

• March 1st Movement (1919): A nationwide Korean protest movement against Japanese rule, in which Mu Chong participated in his youth.
• Guangzhou Uprising (1927): A failed communist uprising in Guangzhou, in which Mu Chong was involved.
• Shanghai workers' uprising (1929): A workers' rebellion in Shanghai that Mu Chong helped to lead.
• Long March (1934-1935): The strategic retreat of the Chinese Red Army, in which Mu Chong played a significant role as an artillery commander.
• Hundred Regiments Offensive (1940): A major campaign by the Eighth Route Army against Japanese forces during the Second Sino-Japanese War, where Mu Chong commanded artillery units.
• Korean War (1950-1953): A conflict in which Mu Chong served as a high-ranking KPA commander, leading to his eventual downfall.
• Inchon Landing Operation (1950): A pivotal UN counter-offensive during the Korean War that led to the collapse of the KPA's southern advance and contributed to Mu Chong's military setbacks.
• Moscow Three-Power Conference (1945): An international conference whose decisions on the future of Korea led to internal political divisions, including Mu Chong's brief alignment with anti-trusteeship forces.
• August Faction Incident (1956): A major political purge orchestrated by Kim Il Sung that further decimated the Yan'an faction and Soviet factions after Mu Chong's death.
• Choe Chang-ik Purge (1958): Another significant purge that effectively eliminated the remaining influence of the Yan'an faction in North Korea.