Kanken Tōyama

2.1. Birth and Early Life

Kanken Toyama was born as Oyadomari Kanken in Shuri, Okinawa, Japan, in 1888 (明治21年_{Meiji 21}^Japanese). At a young age, he began his martial arts journey, starting his karate (specifically Shuri-te) training around 1897, at the age of nine, under the renowned master Ankō Itosu. He continued to be Itosu's student until Itosu's death in 1915. Later in his life, around 1931, Toyama changed his surname to Toyama, reportedly due to his resonance with the ideas of the influential Japanese thinker, Mitsuru Toyama.

2.2. Education and Training

Toyama pursued academic studies at the Okinawa Normal School, which he entered in 1906. During his time there, Anko Itosu served as the karate master for the school, with Yabu Kentsū acting as his assistant. From 1908 to 1911, Toyama himself served as an assistant to both Itosu and Yabu. He graduated from the Normal School in 1911.

Beyond Itosu, Toyama's martial arts training was extensive and diverse. He studied under various prominent masters, including Itarashiki Chōiku, Ankichi Aragaki (from whom he learned Tomari-te), Azato Anko, Chosho Chibana, Oshiro, and Tana (who taught him bojutsu and sai-jutsu). He also studied Naha-te under Kanryō Higaonna. Toyama, along with Tokuda Anbun and Makiya, was popularly referred to as one of "Itosu Anko's Three Crows," indicating his high standing among Itosu's disciples. He was also known for his proficiency in the old-style Gojushiho kata (form) transmitted by Yabu Kentsū.

2.3. Activities in Taiwan

In 1924 (大正13年_{Taishō 13}^Japanese), Toyama moved his family to Taiwan, where he took up a teaching position at an elementary school. During his tenure in Taiwan, he dedicated himself to researching and studying Chinese Ch'uan Fa. He learned various forms, including Taku, Makaitan, Rutaobai, and Ubo, from masters such as Chen Fujii in Taipei and Lin Xiantang in Taichung. His extensive and diverse martial arts background, encompassing both Okinawan and Chinese traditions, was recognized by the Japanese government, which granted him the unique right to promote any rank in any style of Okinawan karate, bestowing upon him the title of master instructor.

2.4. Activities in Tokyo and Shudokan Establishment

In early 1930, Kanken Toyama returned to Japan and, on March 20, 1930, established his first dojo in Tokyo. He named it Shudokan (修道舘_Shūdōkan^Japanese), meaning "the hall for the study of the karate way." Located in Asakusa, near Ishihama Elementary School, Shudokan became a central hub for his teachings. Toyama taught the karate he had learned from Itosu and the Ch'uan Fa he had studied in Taiwan, explicitly stating that he did not claim to have originated a new style of karate.

The Shudokan dojo attracted numerous students, including many individuals of Korean descent, such as Yoon Byung-in, Yun Kwae-byung, and Kim Ki-whang. Yun Kwae-byung would later become the director of the Kanbukan (Hall of Korean Martial Arts), an organization that played a significant role in the post-World War II martial arts landscape. Toyama also became involved with the Hatoyama Kindergarten, aligning with the new educational philosophies of its operators, Hatoyama Kazuo (father of former Prime Minister Ichirō Hatoyama) and his wife Haruko. The International Shudokan Research Society continues to preserve and research his teachings.

3.1. Definition of Karate

Toyama defined karate as "a martial art that protects itself with a hand-held karate based on the principles of stiffness, yin and yang, and breathing, and is free to attack and defend against enemies, with ethical lessons as the first priority." This definition underscored his belief that karate was not merely a physical combat system but a means of moral development and spiritual development.

3.2. Moral Teachings

Toyama emphasized six core moral teachings, which he detailed in his three published works. These teachings guided practitioners in their conduct both within and outside the dojo:

• 守礼のくに_{Shurei no kuni}^Japanese: This phrase refers to "the land of propriety," emphasizing the importance of politeness, respect, and ethical conduct.
• 空手に先手なし_{Karate ni sente nashi}^Japanese: Meaning "No first move in Karate," this principle highlights that karate is a defensive art and should not be used for aggression. It reflects a spiritual attitude of self-restraint and non-provocation.
• 忍は百行の基なり_{Shinobu wa hyaku gyō no kinari}^Japanese: This translates to "Patience is the foundation of a hundred virtues," stressing the importance of perseverance and self-control.
• 手が出たら意地を引け、意地が出たら手を引け_{Te ga detara iji o hike, iji ga detara te o hike}^Japanese: This teaching advises, "If your hand comes out, pull back your stubbornness; if your stubbornness comes out, pull back your hand." It encourages humility and avoiding conflict driven by ego.
• 柔即和、剛即和_{Jū soku wa, Gō soku wa}^Japanese: Meaning "Softness is harmony, rigidity is harmony," this principle suggests that both flexibility and firmness are necessary for balance and effectiveness in karate and in life.
• 喧嘩争いは買っても捨てよ_{Kenka arasoi wa katte mo suteyo}^Japanese: This translates to "Even if you buy a quarrel, throw it away," advocating for the avoidance of unnecessary conflicts and letting go of disputes.

3.3. Practitioner's Attitude and Mindset

Toyama provided extensive guidance on the mental attitude and effort required for karate practitioners. He taught that the meaning of the character "Wu" (武_Wǔ^Chinese), as in martial arts, is to "stop the fight by entering between two people who are in a relationship," urging deep consideration of this essence before engaging in actual combat. He reiterated that "there is no first move in karate," emphasizing a spiritual stance of not acting rashly, not despising even small enemies, and avoiding warlike or proactive aggression. He believed that the lack of initiative in karate forms reflected a broad, peaceful, and ethical meaning, a great lesson for all times.

He stressed that "If a person does it once, he will do it 100 times, and if he does it 100 times, he will do it 1000 times," highlighting that effort, training, and ingenuity are the true secrets to improving karate. He also taught that "Those who enter by reason have a longer day than those who enter by skill," meaning that one should first understand the underlying principles before mastering techniques and training the body. Toyama asserted that karate offers the ultimate and sole offensive, defensive, and self-defense skills, accessible only to the cautious, humble, and benevolent. Drawing from Sun Tzu, he advised, "Old good warrior, unwinnable first, winable enemy," which means to first establish an undefeated position for oneself, and then capitalize on the enemy's vulnerability. He urged practitioners to be both bold and meticulous, with a spirit as vast as the ocean and a demeanor as quiet as a stream, ready to face great enemies without fear and small enemies without contempt. Finally, he taught the importance of self-protection: "If you wanted to attack the opponent, you would have a chance to take advantage of the enemy. If you protect yourself, the gaps of the other party will appear naturally."

He also presented the "Big Eight Sentences of Quan Fa" (拳_Quán^Chinese), which encapsulate key principles for practitioners: "Human hearts are in the same heaven and earth, blood is like the sun and moon, the law is rigid and soft, vomiting, and the body is ready to respond at any time. When the hand is in the air, the code advances and retreats. The eyes need to be four directions. The ears can hear eight phrases."

3.4. Non-school Principle

A cornerstone of Toyama's philosophy was his lifelong adherence to the "non-school principle," meaning he did not give a specific school name to his karate and denied the very existence of distinct karate schools. He argued that "there is no reason why the most solemn feat should have two or three different styles of feats." He believed that the variations in karate were merely differences in training methods and individual ingenuity, not fundamental stylistic divisions.

In his book "Karate Daihokan," Toyama directly addressed the then-popular Shorin-ryu and Shorei-ryu classifications, stating that "it is being told to the world as if this second class now exists, but there is no solid basis or evidence on historical facts." He insisted that these were integrated into the same fundamental format. Regarding the various schools that emerged in the early Shōwa period, Toyama recounted asking Kenwa Mabuni of the Shito-ryu and Chojun Miyagi of the Goju-ryu about their reasons for naming their styles. Mabuni reportedly said it was "more meaningful to give it a name, and it's also meaningful to think of your teacher," while Miyagi explained that "Because people in the world are not aware of karate, the whole picture is expressed in two letters, Go and Juu." Toyama concluded that "the name of the karate is meaningless because it is a genuine Okinawan karate with no style or school." He criticized new, "strange" school names appearing at the time, calling their proponents "people who do not know the whole picture of orthodox karate."

3.5. Inherited Secret Techniques

Toyama reportedly inherited seven secret techniques from his teacher, Anko Itosu. However, he also emphasized that "Secret techniques begin with ordinary techniques and end with ordinary techniques. There is no secret technique at the beginning, but there is at the end. The key to success or failure is training," suggesting that even ordinary techniques, through intense personal training, could become one's own unique "secret." The seven techniques are:

• 複式呼吸法_{Fukushiki kokyūhō}^Japanese (dual system breathing method)
• 獅子の法_{Shishi no hō}^Japanese (lion method)
• 虎の法_{Tora no hō}^Japanese (tiger method)
• 握力法_Akuryokuhō^Japanese (grip strength method)
• 鍛眼法_Tanganhō^Japanese (eyes training method)
• 熊の手_{Kuma no te}^Japanese (bear's paw)
• 三角飛び_Sankakutobi^Japanese (triangular jump)

4.1. Shudokan Activities and Student Cultivation

The Shudokan dojo, established by Toyama in Tokyo in 1930, served as the primary center for his teaching and the cultivation of numerous disciples. He taught what he had learned from Itosu and his studies of Chinese Ch'uan Fa, without claiming to have originated a new style. The Shudokan attracted a diverse group of students, including many individuals of Korean descent who would later become influential figures in their own right, such as Yoon Byung-in, Yun Kwae-byung, and Kim Ki-whang.

After World War II, when martial arts were banned by the GHQ, a group of Toyama's highest-ranking students formed a dojo called Kanbukan (Hall of Korean Martial Arts). To circumvent the ban, they appointed Yun Kwae-byung, who held a special status as a "third country person," as its director, thus avoiding closure by the GHQ. This highlights the significant role Toyama's students played in preserving and continuing martial arts practice during a challenging period.

The following table lists some of the notable students and their affiliations, as recorded in Toyama's "Karate-Do Tai Hokan" and other sources. The '*' symbol indicates persons and organizations that did not train directly with Toyama but were confirmed as members with high-ranking titles.

4.2. Contribution to Karate as a Sport

Toyama made significant contributions to the development of karate as a sport, particularly through his promotion of "Armored Karate" (防具付き空手_{Bogutsuki Karate}^Japanese). He performed demonstration at the National Karatedo Championships, which are now known as the National Armored Karatedo Championships. When the former All Japan Karatedo Federation (which is now the All Japan Karatedo Federation Renbukai) was established in 1951, Shudokan became its general headquarters. As a master, Toyama played a crucial role in popularizing armored karate as a competitive sport.

4.3. Writing Activities

Kanken Toyama was a prolific writer, publishing several influential books on karate that captured his philosophy and teachings. His major published works, all released by Tsuru Shobo, include:

• "Karate / Okute Secret" (空手道・奥手秘術_{Karatedō Ōgi Hiden}^Japanese)
• "Karate Daihokan" (空手道大宝鑑_{Karatedō Daihōkan}^Japanese)
• "Introduction to Karatedo" (空手道入門_{Karatedō Nyūmon}^Japanese)

These books systematically explained his philosophical perspectives, ethical lessons, and the technical aspects of karate, serving as important resources for practitioners and scholars.

5.1. Controversy with Gichin Funakoshi

Around 1948, Toyama engaged in a significant dispute with Gichin Funakoshi over the "head family of karate." Toyama, who considered himself a direct disciple of Ankō Itosu, argued that Funakoshi was merely a collateral (sideline) student under Itosu's lineage, as Funakoshi was a direct disciple of Ankō Asato. Toyama contended that those not directly connected to Itosu were not legitimate successors of Okinawan Karate.

Another point of contention in this debate was their educational backgrounds. Toyama was a graduate of the main course at the Okinawa Normal School, where Itosu taught. In contrast, Funakoshi was from the one-year "Hayashi course" (accelerated course) of the Okinawa Prefecture Normal School. Toyama asserted that only those who had learned from Itosu in the main course of the Normal School could be considered true successors to Itosu's teachings.

However, historical records indicate that Itosu began teaching at the Normal School in 1905. Given that Funakoshi was born in 1868 (or 1870 according to some sources), he would not have had the opportunity to study under Itosu in the main course of the Normal School. Regardless of the factual discrepancies, the Toyama-Funakoshi controversy clearly revealed a sense of discrimination and rivalry between direct and collateral disciples within Itosu's lineage.

6.1. Family and Personal Interests

Kanken Toyama had a son named Hiroshi Hatoyama (鳩山寛_{Hatoyama Kan}^Japanese), who became a renowned violinist. Hiroshi Hatoyama studied under Alexander Mogilevsky and won first prize at the 5th Japan Music Competition. Interestingly, Kanken Toyama himself also had a hobby of playing the violin, indicating a shared artistic inclination within the family.

6.2. Anecdotes

Toyama's life was marked by several incidents that underscored his martial expertise and composure under pressure.

In 1927, while in Taiwan, Toyama was unexpectedly attacked by a swordsman belonging to a koryū (old school) of Japanese swordsmanship. It is believed that the swordsman may have been hired by another karate practitioner who held a grudge against Toyama. Toyama, without showing any panic, calmly evaded the initial sword swing. He then slowly adopted a half-body stance, preparing for the next attack. After a brief silence, the swordsman lunged again. In a swift move, Toyama parried the blade with his left foot, caught the swordsman's arm, and rammed him against an earthen wall, rendering him unconscious. Toyama then picked up the fallen sword and calmly left the scene, the entire encounter lasting less than three minutes.

Another notable incident occurred on December 10, 1947, when Toyama was assaulted without warning by an intoxicated American soldier. Instead of resisting, Toyama allowed the soldier to beat him for a period. Eventually, the American soldier grew tired and fled the scene. Toyama was not seriously injured by the incident. This remarkable resilience was attributed to his rigorous physical conditioning, particularly his mastery of the "Fukushiki kokyūhō" (dual system breathing method) and the secret technique of "Tora no hō" (tiger method) inherited from Anko Itosu, which had forged his body to be as formidable as iron.

7.1. Posthumous Evaluation and Contributions

After World War II, Toyama demonstrated remarkable social responsibility by donating hundreds of his books to Okinawa Prefecture. His hometown of Okinawa had suffered severe damage during the war, leading to a critical shortage of reading materials for schoolchildren. For this significant act, Takanobu Shikiya, the first governor of Okinawa, bestowed upon him the title of "Karate Dodai Shihan" (Grand Master of Karate-do). His teachings and actions have had a positive impact on later generations, particularly in the preservation of Okinawan culture and martial arts traditions.

7.2. Impact on the Karate World

Toyama's "non-school principle" and his emphasis on the fundamental unity of karate, rather than distinct styles, left a lasting philosophical impact. The Shudokan style, though not a "school" in his own definition, developed under his influence and continues to be practiced. His contributions to the promotion of "Armored Karate" (Bogutsuki Karate) were instrumental in establishing karate as a competitive sport, leading to the formation of organizations like the All Japan Karatedo Federation (now Renbukai), with Shudokan serving as its general headquarters. His philosophy, which prioritized ethical lessons, spiritual discipline, and practical self-defense, continues to influence modern karate practitioners, encouraging a holistic approach to the martial art.