1. Early Life and Background
Saldanha's early life was shaped by a distinguished family heritage and a solid education, which laid the foundation for his military and diplomatic career that began in Europe and extended to Brazil.
1.1. Birth, Family, and Education
João Carlos Gregório Domingos Vicente Francisco de Saldanha Oliveira e Daun was born on 17 November 1790, in Azinhaga, Portugal. He was the grandson of Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal, a highly influential Secretary of State to King Joseph I of Portugal, establishing a lineage of political prominence. Saldanha received his education at the prestigious University of Coimbra.
1.2. Early Career and Activities in Brazil
Saldanha began his military service fighting against the French forces. During this period, he was taken prisoner in 1810. Upon his release, he traveled to Brazil, where he engaged in both military and diplomatic services. He remained in Brazil until its declaration of independence, after which he returned to Portugal.
2. Political and Military Career
João Carlos de Saldanha's extensive political and military career in Portugal was characterized by his pivotal involvement in major conflicts, his leadership in various governmental roles, and his notable influence on the political landscape, including his controversial resort to coups.
Saldanha's career saw him rise through the ranks during a tumultuous period in Portuguese history. He was a central figure in the Liberal Wars, serving in key ministerial positions and initiating political upheavals, including his own overthrow. His return from exile marked the beginning of an era of significant political leadership, often defined by his ability to form and dissolve ministries and his long tenure as chief minister during the Regeneration period.
2.1. Liberal Wars and Early Ministerial Roles
Commonly known as the Duke of Saldanha, he played a crucial role in the struggle between the brothers Pedro IV of Portugal (also Peter I of Brazil) and Miguel of Portugal during the Liberal Wars. He actively supported Dom Pedro's cause against the usurper Dom Miguel, participating in significant military engagements such as the Belfastada, the prolonged Siege of Porto, and the Battle of Almoster. His contributions were recognized, leading to his appointment as Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1825 and his role as Governor of Porto from 1826 to 1827. In 1833, he was promoted to Marshal of Portugal. The following year, in 1834, he concluded the Concession of Evoramonte with the defeated Dom Miguel, effectively ending the conflict.
2.2. First Premiership and Exile
In 1835, Saldanha ascended to the positions of Minister of War and President of the Council. However, he resigned within the same year. Following his resignation, he instigated the revolution of 1836, which led to his subsequent exile from Portugal. He remained in exile for a decade, until he was recalled to Portugal in 1846.
2.3. Return to Power and the Regeneration Era
Upon his return from exile in 1846, Saldanha was elevated to the noble title of Duke of Saldanha. He promptly formed a new ministry, although this government proved short-lived, dissolving in 1849. In 1851, he orchestrated another revolt, which successfully brought him back to power. He then assumed the role of chief minister, leading a coalition party composed of Septembrists and dissatisfied Chartists. This period, from 1851 to 1856, is often associated with the Regeneration era in Portuguese politics, during which Saldanha wielded significant influence. He remained in power until the accession of Pedro V of Portugal in 1856.
2.4. Later Governmental Roles and Final Ambassadorship
After his extended tenure as chief minister, Saldanha continued to hold various important governmental and diplomatic roles. He served as Minister to Rome in two separate periods, from 1862 to 1864 and again from 1866 to 1869. Despite his advanced age, he made a brief return to the premiership for a few months in 1870, serving from May to August. In 1871, he was appointed as the Portuguese Ambassador to London, a final diplomatic mission that lasted until his death. During the early reign of Luís I of Portugal, when Saldanha was in his 80s, he even attempted another coup, demonstrating his enduring influence and willingness to engage in political upheaval.
3. Thought and Works
Beyond his military and political endeavors, Saldanha was also recognized for his intellectual pursuits, particularly his linguistic prowess and his engagement with philosophical thought.
3.1. Intellectual Interests and Language Proficiency
Saldanha was widely regarded as an accomplished linguist, demonstrating perfect fluency in several major European languages, including English, French, and German. His linguistic abilities were complemented by a reputation as a general scholar, reflecting a broad range of intellectual interests beyond the immediate demands of his military and political careers.
3.2. Published Philosophical Work
Saldanha translated his intellectual inclinations into published work. He authored a philosophical treatise titled "On the Connexion between true Sciences and Revealed Religion," which was published in Berlin. This work showcased his engagement with questions concerning the relationship between scientific knowledge and religious belief.
4. Personal Life and Family
Aspects of Saldanha's personal life are also noted, including the loss of his son. His son died in Berlin in 1845, a personal tragedy that occurred while Saldanha was in exile.
5. Death
João Carlos de Saldanha passed away on 20 November 1876, in London, while serving as the Portuguese Ambassador to the United Kingdom. His death marked the end of a long and exceptionally influential career that spanned over half a century of Portuguese history.
6. Legacy and Assessment
João Carlos de Saldanha's long and impactful career elicited varied evaluations both during his lifetime and in historical retrospectives, particularly concerning his political actions and their effects on Portugal's nascent democracy.
6.1. Contemporary Assessments
Contemporary observers provided detailed characterizations of Saldanha. For instance, Terence Hughes, writing in 1846, described Saldanha as a "very noble-looking old soldier" whose appearance, manners, and accomplishments would grace any European nobility. Hughes noted his striking white hair, mustache, and whiskers contrasting with his "soldiery brown" complexion, alongside his benevolent mouth, bright eyes, and expansive forehead. He was described as being of middle height with an easy and gentlemanly figure, remarkably upright for a man then estimated to be sixty-two years old. Hughes highlighted Saldanha's distinction in both military and diplomatic fields, emphasizing his service throughout the Peninsular War and his active role in the war against Dom Miguel. He was considered by far the ablest general in Portugal, with his strategic talents widely acknowledged and undisputed. Saldanha was also said to be descended from the famous Bernardo del Carpio, whose father was the Conde de Saldana.
6.2. Historical Evaluation and Political Impact
Historically, Saldanha is recognized as one of the most dominating personalities in Portuguese war and politics from the Liberal Revolution of 1820 until his death. However, his legacy is complex, notably marked by his frequent involvement in and instigation of coups d'état, undertaking no less than seven throughout his career. While his military prowess and political acumen were significant in shaping the Liberal era, his repeated use of force to gain or maintain power raised concerns about the stability of Portugal's emerging constitutional system. His actions, though often successful in securing his political objectives, contributed to a pattern of instability and political fragmentation, hindering the consistent development of democratic institutions and social progress in 19th-century Portugal. He is remembered as a powerful and influential figure whose pursuit of power through unconstitutional means remains a central aspect of his historical assessment.