Hoshi Tōru

1.1. Childhood and Early Education

Hoshi Tōru was born Hamakichi in Edo, in what is now Tsukiji, Chuo Ward, Tokyo, on May 19, 1850 (8th day of the 4th month of the 3rd year of Kaei). He was the eldest son of Tokubei Tsukudaya, a plasterer, and his mother, Mats, was the daughter of a fisherman from Uraga in Sagami Province. He had two older sisters. Following his biological father's bankruptcy and disappearance, his mother remarried to a Kanpō medical doctor named Hoshi Taijun, and Hamakichi adopted the Hoshi surname. Due to the family's financial struggles, they relocated multiple times before settling in Yokohama.

Although he initially intended to pursue a career in medicine, Hoshi began studying English. He attended Takashima School and the Hepburn Academy (now Meiji Gakuin University), which laid the groundwork for his future. He also studied English at the Yokohama English School, established by the shogunate to train individuals proficient in English for trade purposes, with contributions from Hepburn himself. In 1867, Hoshi entered the Kaiseijo (an institution for Western learning), serving as an English assistant and also studying French. He later transferred to a private school run by Norihe Yasunori, who recommended him for an English assistant position at the Naval Training School in October 1867. However, he lost this position within three months due to the Boshin War. After this, he assisted Michael Bayley, a British consulate pastor who published the "Bankoku Shinbunshi" (International Newspaper) in the Yokohama foreign settlement, earning money by translating English newspapers.

1.2. Study Abroad and Barrister Training

Following his early government service, Hoshi embarked on a significant period of study abroad in England. In September 1874, he was ordered by the Dajō-kan (Grand Council of State) to study in England, departing Yokohama the following month. In January 1875, he enrolled at the Middle Temple in London, one of the four Inns of Court. In June 1877, he successfully qualified as a barrister, becoming the first Japanese national to achieve this distinction in the United Kingdom. Upon his return to Japan in February 1878, he became the first registered `daigenin` (a proto-lawyer) affiliated with the Ministry of Justice. His legal career quickly gained prominence when he successfully defended Gotō Shōjirō in the Takashima Coal Mine Incident trial, earning him considerable fame and allowing him to accumulate wealth by charging high fees for official requests.

2.1. Early Government Service and Diplomatic Incident

After the Meiji Restoration, Hoshi Tōru enjoyed the patronage of Mutsu Munemitsu, who became the Governor of Kanagawa Prefecture. In August 1871, Hoshi was appointed a teacher at the Shūbunkan, an English school in Yokohama. By March 1872, he was promoted to Second-Class Translator for Kanagawa Prefecture and concurrently served as head teacher of the Shūbunkan (also known as Keikōdō). Through Mutsu's influence, who concurrently held the position of Tax Bureau Chief in the Ministry of Finance, Hoshi was hired by the Ministry of Finance in April 1872 and became a seventh-class official in the Tax Bureau in September. In January 1874, he was notably appointed as the Head of the Yokohama Customs Office (Tax Assistant, Junior Sixth Rank).

However, in May 1874, Hoshi became embroiled in a diplomatic controversy known as the "Queen Incident." The incident arose when Hoshi translated "Her Majesty's Court" in an English letter to the British consul as 女王陛下ノ裁判庁_{Joō Heika no Saibansho}^Japanese ("Her Majesty the Queen's Court"). Consul Robert G. Robertson took offense, insisting that "Empress" (女帝_Jotei^Japanese) should have been used instead of "Queen," deeming "Queen" disrespectful. Hoshi stubbornly maintained that "Queen" was correct, arguing that the British monarch herself used the title "Queen" rather than "Empress." The following month, British Minister Harry Smith Parkes intervened, pressuring the Ministry of Foreign Affairs for Hoshi's dismissal and an apology. Parkes allegedly threatened to refer to the Japanese Emperor as a "King" if Hoshi was not punished. Faced with British diplomatic pressure, the Japanese government, through Sanjō Sanetomi, the Grand Minister of State, and Terashima Munenori, the Foreign Affairs Minister, tried to persuade Hoshi to amend the document and apologize. Hoshi, however, insisted that the British demand was unreasonable. To appease Parkes and resolve the incident, the government issued Dajō-kan Decree No. 98 in July 1874, mandating that all foreign monarchs in official documents be referred to as "Emperor." Hoshi was fined 2 JPY and removed from his post at the Yokohama Customs Office, becoming non-active.

2.2. Political Opposition and Persecution

Upon his return to Japan from England, Hoshi joined the Ministry of Justice in February 1878. He became a vocal critic of `hanbatsu` (clan-based politics), which dominated the Meiji government, and the perceived weakness of the Japanese government in revising the unequal treaties with Western powers. His outspokenness led to his persecution under government laws. He actively participated in the Daidō Danketsu Undō (Great Unification Movement) of various opposition parties in 1887, which aimed to challenge the `hanbatsu` government. This involvement led to his expulsion from Tokyo under the Peace Preservation Law and subsequently, his imprisonment in 1888 for violating the publishing regulations.

2.3. Overseas Sojourn and Return to Japan

After his release from imprisonment in 1888, Hoshi Tōru left Japan, spending about seven months in Canada and then three months in Washington and New York in the United States. He then continued his travels to England for a year and subsequently to Germany (Berlin), before finally returning to Japan in October 1890. This period abroad profoundly impacted Hoshi's political views. He observed that Japanese civilian movements held little significance in the eyes of Westerners, leading him to realize that Japan was not respected by other nations. This experience prompted a significant ideological shift: he abandoned his previous stance of `minryoku kyūyōron` (restoring the people's power, which advocated for reduced taxes and government spending to alleviate the burden on the populace) and instead adopted a `fukoku kyōhei` (enriching the country, strengthening the military) approach. This new philosophy prioritized increasing taxes and military expenditure to develop Japan into a respected and powerful nation. Upon his return, he joined the newly formed Constitutional Liberal Party in 1890.

3.1. Party Affiliation and Parliamentary Entry

Hoshi Tōru's formal entry into party politics began with his involvement in the Liberal Party in 1882, after its formation in October of the previous year. He participated in the management of the party's organ newspaper, Jiyū Shimbun. In 1884, he founded his own newspaper, Jiyūtō, through which he became a vocal critic of the government. His outspoken nature led to two imprisonments for insulting government officials. Despite these setbacks, Hoshi consistently worked to maintain the Liberal Party and rebuild the movement during a period when other leaders were wavering. He became a standing committee member at the party's convention in April 1883 and served as the defense counsel for Kōno Hironaka during the Fukushima incident trial in 1883. In 1884, he persuaded Itagaki Taisuke to remain as party president, preventing the party's dissolution. In 1892, Hoshi ran in the 2nd general election for the House of Representatives from Tochigi's 1st district, with his election and subsequent appointment as Speaker of the House as his key promises. He was successfully elected, marking his formal entry into national politics.

3.2. Speakership of the House of Representatives

Hoshi Tōru was elected as the second Speaker of the House of Representatives in May 1892, influenced by Mutsu Munemitsu's intentions and the efforts of Okazaki Kunisuke, who rallied the "Independent Club" in support of Hoshi. During the 3rd Diet session, Hoshi, under Mutsu's direction, fiercely challenged the First Matsukata Cabinet. An impeachment resolution against the cabinet was passed, and additional budget proposals were rejected, ultimately forcing the Matsukata Cabinet to resign. The subsequent formation of the Second Itō Cabinet, which included Mutsu as Foreign Minister despite the Emperor's distrust of Mutsu, signified that the genrō (elder statesmen) recognized the indispensability of cooperation with the Liberal Party, led by Hoshi, for parliamentary operations.

Before the 4th Diet, Liberal Party executives resolved to pursue an "active constructive" policy, embracing compatible ideas regardless of whether they came from `ri-tō` (bureaucratic parties) or `min-tō` (popular parties). In this Diet, Hoshi, collaborating with Mutsu, forcefully shifted the Liberal Party to support the Itō Cabinet and unite the party behind accepting the "Imperial Rescript for Harmony" regarding the budget. This marked a monumental shift in Japanese political history, dismantling the previous `hanbatsu` versus popular party dynamic. It laid the groundwork for a system where the leading party not only criticized the government but also took responsibility for policies through compromise and coordination, a model later inherited by the Rikken Seiyūkai and the Liberal Democratic Party, signifying a crucial step toward establishing Japan's constitutional party politics.

However, this process generated significant resentment from other parties like the Kaishintō (whose alliance with the popular parties was disrupted), and bureaucratic party members who felt marginalized. This animosity culminated in a vote of no confidence against Speaker Hoshi. On November 29, 1893, the House of Representatives passed a motion of no confidence against him (166-119 votes), citing his defense of defendants in the Sōma Incident and allegations of receiving bribes from stock exchanges. Hoshi refused to resign, arguing that the motion was merely harassment by the "hardline six parties" (including the Kokumin Kyōkai and Kaishintō) who opposed his support for treaty revision, and that he had nothing to hide. Under the Meiji Constitution, the Speaker of the House was an imperial appointee, meaning the Emperor held the power of appointment and dismissal. Subsequently, on December 1, a motion to petition the Emperor for Hoshi's dismissal was passed (152-126 votes). The Emperor responded by chastising the House for its own "lack of clarity" and negligence, a response reportedly orchestrated by Itō Hirobumi (then Prime Minister) through the Minister of the Imperial Household Hijikata Hisamoto, who viewed the no-confidence vote as an indirect attack on Foreign Minister Mutsu Munemitsu. Despite this, Hoshi continued to attempt to occupy the Speaker's chair and perform his duties. Consequently, on December 5, the House resolved to suspend Hoshi from attendance for one week as a disciplinary measure. When the suspension ended, and Hoshi again attempted to take the Speaker's seat on December 12, the House passed the most severe disciplinary measure, expulsion from the Diet, on December 13 (185-92 votes, exceeding the two-thirds majority required for expulsion). This act stripped Hoshi of his parliamentary qualification and automatically removed him from the Speakership. However, he was re-elected in the subsequent general election three months later, returning to the political arena.

3.3. Diplomatic and Legal Roles

Following his re-entry into politics, Hoshi Tōru took on significant diplomatic and legal roles. After the First Sino-Japanese War, with the political struggle temporarily suspended due to the national unity mood, Hoshi's primary political platform was lost, and he was burdened by immense debt from his intense election campaign. In this period of frustration, he visited Korea and was encouraged by Inoue Kaoru, then Minister to Korea, to participate in Korean affairs. In March 1895, Hoshi went to Korea and served as a legal advisor to the Korean government. His efforts to gain control of the Korean court through the pro-Japanese Internal Minister Park Yeong-hyo and Empress Min failed. With the collapse of Japan's authority in Korea following the Triple Intervention, Inoue resigned as Minister in August. Hoshi was then disregarded by Inoue's successor, Miura Gorō, and was not informed of the plan for the Eulmi Incident (the assassination of Empress Min) in October 1895. He traveled to Tokyo as an envoy to discuss post-incident measures and never returned to Korea.

As cooperation between the Liberal Party and the Itō Cabinet was maintained through Hayashi Yūzō and Itō Miyoji, Hoshi found himself sidelined. With Mutsu Munemitsu also ill after the Sino-Japanese War, and the party largely endorsing cooperation with the government, Hoshi, leading a minority faction, became isolated. In February 1896, he expressed his desire to go abroad to Itō Hirobumi. In April 1896, Hoshi was appointed as Resident Minister to the United States, serving until 1898. During his time in the U.S., he also served as a member of the Legal Code Investigation Committee and the Railway Nationalization Investigation Committee. In 1898, during the formation of the First Ōkuma Cabinet (the Waihan Cabinet), Hoshi was initially slated to become Foreign Minister. However, Ōkuma Shigenobu, the Prime Minister, refused his appointment, a decision that contributed to a split within the Kenseitō party.

3.4. Cabinet Service and Party Building

In 1899, at the opening ceremony of the Kenseitō's Tohoku Branch Office, Hoshi Tōru passed resolutions for the construction of ports in Tohoku, completion of Tohoku railways, and establishment of a Tohoku university. He delivered a groundbreaking speech for Japanese party politics, declaring, "While the Liberal Party engaged in destructive movements in the age of autocracy, in the era of constitutionalism, it is actively engaged in constructive movements." He further stated that Tohoku, being economically and infrastructurally inferior to the southwest, needed `kensetsu shugi` (constructionism) with railways and port development, and that the Liberal Party had a responsibility to accomplish these projects in Tohoku. Hoshi innovatively viewed demands for local interests, previously seen as bothersome requests from rural Diet members, as valuable resources to be actively stimulated. He developed a strategy to expand party strength by encouraging locals to expect the ruling party, collaborating with the government, to fulfill these demands. This strategy was consolidated when he joined the Rikken Seiyūkai party, which was established in 1900 by Itō Hirobumi. Trusting Hoshi's robust political acumen, Itō appointed him as Minister of Communications in the Fourth Itō Cabinet in October 1900, marking Hoshi's first entry into a cabinet position.

3.5. Political Strategy and Party Reform

Hoshi Tōru's political strategy was characterized by his "Positive Constructive" policy. This philosophy aimed at strengthening Japan as an independent and powerful nation through military expansion and industrial development. His practical approach involved leveraging regional demands for infrastructure improvements-such as the construction of ports, railways, and universities-as a means for political parties to gain support and expand their influence. This strategy, often involving `rieki yūdō` (pork-barrel politics), is considered to have laid the prototype for modern Japanese party politics, which continued through the Rikken Seiyūkai and later the Liberal Democratic Party. Hoshi believed that parliamentary politics could only function effectively if the leading party, rather than merely opposing the government, engaged in compromise and adjustment to take responsibility for policy implementation, thereby contributing to the nation's overall strength and constitutional development.

4.1. Critique of Clan Politics (Hanbatsu)

Throughout his career, Hoshi Tōru was an outspoken and consistent critic of `hanbatsu` (clan-based politics), which concentrated power within a few dominant clans from the former feudal domains. He fundamentally opposed this entrenched power structure, advocating instead for a more meritocratic and representative government that would serve the interests of the nation as a whole rather than a select few. He actively participated in movements like the Daidō Danketsu Undō, which aimed to unite opposition forces against `hanbatsu` rule, highlighting his commitment to a more democratic and inclusive political system.

4.2. "Positive Constructive" Policy

Hoshi Tōru's political philosophy centered on what he termed "Positive Constructive" (`sekkyoku kensetsu shugi`). This core belief aimed at transforming Japan into a formidable and independent nation through a robust policy of military expansion and industrial development. He envisioned a Japan that would command respect on the international stage by actively building its national strength. This policy was distinct from earlier popular rights movements that often emphasized reducing government burdens; instead, Hoshi argued for increased taxation and government spending to fund critical infrastructure and military modernization.

4.3. Influence of Utilitarianism and Pragmatism

During his studies in England, Hoshi Tōru was heavily influenced by the ideas of Jeremy Bentham, particularly by his work "An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation." He repeatedly reread Bentham's text, and this engagement shaped his pragmatic approach to politics, where he prioritized tangible results and measurable outcomes over abstract ideals. His attitude emphasized what was effective for concrete objectives, rather than solely adhering to principles. In 1877-1878, Hoshi participated in a reading group of English books with Mutsu Munemitsu and Shimada Saburō (a translator of Bentham's "Theory of Legislation"). According to Shimada, when Mutsu posed the question "what is the conclusion of human right and wrong," Hoshi offered a legal interpretation rooted in Bentham's utilitarianism. However, his perspective evolved; in 1884, after the sudden death of a radical Liberal Party member, Hoshi expressed profound sorrow and stated that "living idly is not the only purpose in life." When a disciple remarked that this contrasted with his usual utilitarian views, Hoshi responded that his views had changed, and he would now "not spare his life for the country." This indicated a shift toward a more nationalistic and sacrificial stance, transcending pure utilitarian calculation.

4.4. Anti-Elite Sentiments

Hoshi Tōru's humble beginnings as the son of a plasterer deeply influenced his worldview, fostering a strong anti-elite sentiment. He harbored resentment towards the intellectual and social elites of his time, who often came from privileged backgrounds and to whom he felt fundamentally distinct. This personal bias sometimes manifested in his political actions. For instance, during his time at the Middle Temple in London, he had a physical altercation with Baba Tatsui, a fellow student who hailed from a high-ranking samurai family of the Tosa Domain, and their relationship ended there. Hoshi also frequently criticized the Kaishintō, labeling them a "pseudo-party." This animosity stemmed from his disdain for their intellectual elite composition, including figures like Ono Azusa and Shimada Saburō, and his inability to tolerate their claim to represent the popular will despite their privileged circumstances.

5.1. 'Queen Incident' and Diplomatic Fallout

In May 1874, while serving as the Head of the Yokohama Customs Office, Hoshi Tōru became involved in a diplomatic dispute known as the "Queen Incident." He translated "Her Majesty's Court" in an English document to the British consul as "Her Majesty the Queen's Court." The British consul, Robert G. Robertson, and later British Minister Harry Smith Parkes, insisted that the term "Empress" (女帝_Jotei^Japanese) should have been used instead of "Queen" for the British monarch, deeming Hoshi's translation disrespectful. Hoshi, however, defiantly maintained that "Queen" was the correct translation, as the British monarch herself used that title. This led to a significant diplomatic confrontation where Parkes pressured the Japanese government for Hoshi's dismissal and an apology, even threatening to refer to the Japanese Emperor as a "King." The Japanese government, fearing British power, eventually intervened. While Hoshi submitted a statement arguing the British side was unreasonable, the government appeased Parkes by issuing a decree (Dajō-kan Decree No. 98 in July 1874) stating that all foreign monarchs in official documents should be referred to as "Emperor." Hoshi was fined 2 JPY and subsequently dismissed from his position, marking an early controversy in his career.

5.2. Parliamentary Expulsion

Hoshi Tōru's tenure as Speaker of the House of Representatives was cut short by a major controversy. On November 29, 1893, a motion of no confidence against him was passed in the House, with 166 votes in favor and 119 against. The grounds for the motion included his defense of defendants in the Sōma Incident and allegations of bribery related to stock exchange establishments. Hoshi vehemently denied these accusations, arguing that the motion was politically motivated harassment by the `Hardline Six Parties` (Kokumin Kyōkai, Kaishintō, etc.) due to his support for treaty revision. As the Speaker of the House was formally an imperial appointee, Hoshi refused to resign, insisting that the power to dismiss him lay with the Emperor.

On December 1, a resolution to petition the Emperor for Hoshi's removal was passed (152-126 votes). However, Emperor Meiji responded by criticizing the House itself for its "lack of clarity" and negligence, a response reportedly orchestrated by Prime Minister Itō Hirobumi. Despite this, Hoshi continued to attempt to carry out his duties from the Speaker's chair. This defiance led to a resolution on December 5 to suspend him from parliamentary attendance for one week as a disciplinary measure. Upon the expiration of his suspension, on December 12, Hoshi again tried to take the Speaker's seat. Consequently, on December 13, the House passed the most severe disciplinary measure: expulsion from the Diet. The vote was 185 to 92, exceeding the required two-thirds majority (67% of present members). This act stripped Hoshi of his parliamentary qualification and automatically removed him from the Speakership. Despite the disgrace, Hoshi was re-elected in the very next general election, demonstrating his persistent political influence.

5.3. Tokyo City Scandal and Resignation

In November 1900, Hoshi Tōru became the central figure in a major corruption scandal involving the Tokyo City Council. As the Minister of Communications and a concurrent city councilor, he was accused of involvement in a bribery scheme. The Mainichi Shimbun newspaper led a relentless campaign against him, detailing the allegations. Although Hoshi publicly protested his innocence, the intense public pressure forced him to submit his resignation on December 20, 1900, just three months after taking office. Hara Takashi was appointed as his successor on December 22. In March 1901, Hoshi was eventually found innocent due to a lack of evidence. However, critics argued that even if Hoshi himself was not directly enriching himself, he bore significant responsibility for the numerous corruption incidents within the Tokyo municipal government. This was largely attributed to his political methods, particularly his strategy of bringing right-wing `sōshi` (activists/ruffians) who had been involved in incidents like the Osaka Incident into the political arena to strengthen his faction.

5.4. Allegations of "Money Politics"

Hoshi Tōru was widely criticized during his lifetime and is often remembered as the embodiment of "money politics" (金権政治_{kinken seiji}^Japanese) and political maneuvering for party interests. His political strategies, which involved leveraging local demands for infrastructure and development to expand party influence and secure support, frequently led to accusations of bribery and corrupt practices. For example, he was accused of taking bribes in the Sōma Incident and the Tokyo City scandal.

However, historical accounts also present a contrasting view of his personal character. Many, including his successor as Communications Minister, Hara Takashi, described him as "a man of simple tastes and clean regarding money." Historian Nakamura Kikuo suggested that many of the scandals attributed to Hoshi were likely exaggerated or fabricated by his political enemies, or were the result of the actions of his disciples and `sōshi` followers. Hoshi himself was reportedly indifferent to personal wealth accumulation. It is said that he maintained a modest and upright private life, was scrupulously clean in his personal relationships, including with women, and treated his household staff and students (`shosei`) with great affection. Upon his assassination, it was revealed that his estate consisted of only about 10.00 K JPY in debt, further supporting the claim of his personal financial integrity, despite the public perception of his involvement in "money politics."

7.1. Family Life and Personal Conduct

Born Hamakichi, Hoshi Tōru adopted the Hoshi surname after his mother remarried. He had two older sisters. His early life was marked by poverty and some rebellious behavior. While a civil servant in Kanagawa Prefecture, he frequently socialized, drank, and got into arguments with police, and in June 1872, he was ordered to be confined for 100 days for assaulting a rickshaw puller and resisting police. He also lost his Ministry of Finance job in August of that year. Despite his own financial difficulties, Hoshi was known for supporting numerous live-in students (`shosei`). His parents, visiting him in Tokyo after he lost his job, were astonished to find him housing so many dependents and suggested he dismiss them. However, Hoshi refused, stating he would support talented individuals as much as possible, even selling his cherished books to cover their living expenses. After his confinement, Mutsu Munemitsu invited Hoshi and his students to live at Mutsu's residence to help him stabilize his life.

In contrast to his public image as a figure of "money politics," Hoshi was said to be personally modest and honest. His successor as Minister of Communications, Hara Takashi, described him as "a man of simple tastes and clean regarding money." Historian Nakamura Kikuo suggested that many public scandals were likely the result of political smear campaigns or actions by his followers. Hoshi was also known for his integrity in personal relationships, especially with women, and was reported to have treated everyone in his household, including his students, with affection. He was not focused on accumulating personal wealth; upon his assassination, it was found that his estate consisted solely of about 10.00 K JPY in debt. His wife was Hoshi Tsuna (also known as Tsunako or Tsunako). His adopted son, Hoshi Hikaru, inherited the family headship.

7.2. Intellectual Pursuits and Library

Hoshi Tōru was renowned for his profound intellectual curiosity and prodigious reading habits, earning him the epithets "pathological reader" and "scholar-politician." He mastered multiple languages, including English, French, German, Italian, and Spanish, and consumed an enormous volume of books. His interests spanned politics, law, and history, but he also delved into cutting-edge economic texts by figures such as William Stanley Jevons and Henry Dunning Macleod. While serving at the Yokohama Customs Office, he collaborated with Jinbo Tomotsune and Nozawa Keiichi to translate and publish William Blackstone's "Commentaries on the Laws of England" as "Complete English Legal Works" between 1873 and 1878.

Anecdotes highlight his intense dedication to reading. During his imprisonment, he would read from dawn until the light faded, and his letters to his wife often consisted solely of requests for foreign books and provisions. Nozawa Keiichi recounted that in 1888, while visiting Hoshi in Ishikawa-jima Prison, he found Hoshi dismissing Macleod's then-latest economic philosophy book as "already outdated in Europe and useless." Hoshi then produced several original texts in Italian, English, French, and German, asserting that these were the latest economic works and that aspiring politicians needed to master at least English and French to avoid remaining mere activists. However, he also requested Macleod's book for himself alongside Jevons and David Ricardo.

Hoshi was modest about his vast knowledge. His associate, Okazaki Kunisuke, noted that Hoshi disliked wasting time on idle chatter and avoided visitors without specific purposes, which contributed to his unpopularity and reputation for arrogance. Mochizuki Keisuke recounted visiting Hoshi in Kyoto during a meal; Hoshi continued reading a book next to his tray and did not look up even during their conversation. When confronted, Hoshi claimed he could read with his eyes, eat with his mouth, and listen with his ears simultaneously, offering to repeat Mochizuki's entire conversation. His personal library eventually grew to over 11,000 volumes. In 1913, his adopted son, Hoshi Hikaru, and other family members formally donated this extensive collection, known as the "Hoshi Bunko" (Hoshi Library), to Keio University, where it remains housed at the Mita Media Center. The collection, which had been entrusted to Keio University in 1906, includes 5,732 Japanese and Chinese classical works, 4,817 Western books primarily on politics, economics, and law, and some additional Chinese texts.

7.3. Key Relationships

Hoshi Tōru's career was inextricably linked to his relationship with Mutsu Munemitsu, his benefactor. While Hoshi may not have revered Mutsu in the same way Hara Takashi did, he felt a deep sense of obligation and interacted with him in a straightforward manner. It is believed that Hoshi's decision to join the Liberal Party in 1882, despite his successful legal career, was primarily to prepare the political ground for Mutsu upon his release from prison. Hoshi invested his personal fortune and endured the capriciousness of Itagaki Taisuke to maintain the Liberal Party, ensuring Mutsu had political options.

However, Hoshi was deeply disappointed and angered when Mutsu, upon his return from abroad in February 1886, accepted a government position as a Minister without Portfolio in October. Mutsu, for his part, preferred a state of balance between the Liberal Party and the `hanbatsu` government rather than an either-or choice. Despite coldly pushing Hoshi away at times, Mutsu felt a lingering sense of guilt. This was evident when, before the 3rd Diet, Mutsu maneuvered to secure Hoshi the Speakership of the House, even though Kōno Hironaka was considered the leading candidate. Hoshi, acting on Mutsu's directives, fiercely confronted the Matsukata Cabinet, leading to the passage of an impeachment resolution and the full deletion of new project expenses, including warship construction funds, which ultimately led to the cabinet's collapse.

When Mutsu joined the 2nd Itō Cabinet as Foreign Minister, Hoshi forcefully swayed the Liberal Party to change its stance and accept the "Imperial Rescript for Harmony" concerning the budget. This move, however, drew intense resentment from within the Liberal Party itself, as well as from the Kaishintō and bureaucratic party members, leading to Hoshi's forced resignation as Speaker. After Mutsu's death, Hoshi's political approach seemingly shifted, becoming more overtly focused on directly pursuing power. Historian Tokutomi Sohō characterized Hoshi as Mutsu's disciple, famously stating that "a tiger like Hoshi Tōru was almost like a cat in front of Mutsu."

7.4. Promotion of Emigration Policy

Hoshi Tōru played a significant role in promoting and facilitating Japanese emigration abroad. In 1894, when the `kanyaku imin` (government-contracted emigration) system to Hawaii was abolished, Hoshi actively lobbied the Japanese government to establish a private emigration system. He successfully secured authorization for private emigration companies, leading to a new era of private agencies arranging overseas journeys for Japanese citizens. Hoshi was personally involved in the operations of several major emigration companies, including the Hiroshima Overseas Travel Company, Morioka Shokai, Kumamoto Emigration Company, Tokyo Emigration Company, and Japan Emigration Company. He also provided assistance to Inoue Keijiro's efforts to introduce railways within Japan, drawing on Inoue's experience with railroad operations in Honolulu.

7.5. Followers and Subordinates

Hoshi Tōru cultivated a network of loyal followers and subordinates who played significant roles in his political activities and the broader political landscape. Key individuals included Toshimitsu Tsurumatsu, Kobayashi Seiichiro, Otsuka Tsunejiro, Yokota Sennosuke, Watanabe Toru, Isobe Yasuji, Hayashi Kenkichiro, Kokubo Kishichi, Hyuga Terutake, Inoue Keijiro, Watanabe Kanjuro, and Sugawara Den. Hoshi actively supported some of these individuals in gaining overseas experience, particularly by sponsoring their travel to the United States, with the aim of developing them into driving forces for his party. Upon their return, he appointed members of his `Jiyū Club` (Liberal Club) to important positions within party newspapers and magazines, and also involved them in emigration businesses. These individuals formed the core of the "Hoshi faction," and their elevation into political roles marked a significant opportunity for `sōshi` (political activists, often associated with rougher methods) to ascend in the political sphere.

7.6. Honors and Decorations

Hoshi Tōru received several official honors and decorations during his lifetime and posthumously:

• Ranks (位階_ikai^Japanese):**
  • February 18, 1874: Junior Sixth Rank (従六位_Ju-rokui^Japanese). (This rank was formally returned in June 1885 following his imprisonment.)
  • April 30, 1896: Junior Fourth Rank (従四位_Ju-shii^Japanese).
  • November 10, 1900: Senior Fourth Rank (正四位_Shō-shii^Japanese).
  • June 21, 1901: Junior Third Rank (従三位_Ju-sanmi^Japanese) (posthumous).
• Orders (勲章_kunshō^Japanese):**
  • September 16, 1897: Order of the Rising Sun, Third Class, with Cordon (勲三等旭日中綬章_{Kunsantō Kyokujitsu Chūjushō}^Japanese).
  • June 21, 1901: Order of the Sacred Treasure, Second Class (勲二等瑞宝章_{Kun-nitō Zuihōshō}^Japanese) (posthumous).

7.7. Biographical Works and Cultural Depictions

Hoshi Tōru's life and career have been the subject of numerous biographical works and have been depicted in various cultural media.

• Translated Works by Hoshi Tōru:**
  • Overseas World Achievements Compendium (萬巻楼, 1872, 4 volumes).
  • Brief Explanation of Stamp Tax (大蔵省, 1873, co-translated with Arishima Take).
  • Outline of Each Country's Parliament (麗沢館, 1886).
  • Complete English Legal Works (東生亀次郎, 1873-1878), a translation of William Blackstone's "Commentaries on the Laws of England" (based on a condensed version).
• Notable Biographical Works:**
  • Maeda Renzan (前田蓮山), Hoshi Toru Den (星亨傳), Kōzan Shobō, 1948.
  • Nakamura Kikuo (中村菊男), Hoshi Toru (星亨), Yoshikawa Kōbunkan (Jinbutsu Sōsho 101), 1963, new edition 1988.
  • Ariizumi Sadao (有泉貞夫), Hoshi Toru (星亨), Asahi Shimbunsha (Asahi Hyōden Sen 27), 1983.
  • Nozawa Keiichi (野沢鶏一) (ed.), Hoshi Toru to Sono Jidai (星亨とその時代, Hoshi Toru and His Times), 2 volumes, Heibonsha (Tōyō Bunko), 1984, wide edition 2007.
  • Takeuchi Yoshio (竹内良夫), Seito Seiji no Kaitakusha Hoshi Toru (政党政治の開拓者 星亨, Hoshi Toru: Pioneer of Party Politics), Fuyō Shobō, 1984.
  • Suzuki Takeshi (鈴木武史), Hoshi Toru: Hanbatsu Seiji o Yurugashita Otoko (星亨 藩閥政治を揺がした男, Hoshi Toru: The Man Who Shook Hanbatsu Politics), Chuko Shinsho, 1988.
• Cultural Depictions:**
  • Film: Nihon Ansatsu Hiroku (日本暗殺秘録, Japan Assassination Record), 1969, where he was portrayed by Chiba Toshiro.
  • Television Drama: Haru no Hatō (春の波涛, Waves of Spring), 1985, an NHK drama where he was played by Tada Yukio.

7.8. Commemoration and Historical Evaluation

Hoshi Tōru is remembered in various ways. A bronze statue of Hoshi Tōru once stood within the grounds of Ikegami Honmonji temple, where he is buried. However, it was removed during World War II as part of the metal donation drive, leaving only its pedestal. After the war, while his family donated the pedestal, it now serves as the base for a statue of the priest Nichiren. In Utsunomiya City, Tochigi Prefecture, a district named Hoshigaoka (`星が丘`, "Hoshi's Hill") was established in 1965, named in his honor.

Historically, Hoshi Tōru is evaluated as a figure who, despite being fiercely criticized during his lifetime for alleged "money politics" and pursuing party interests, was driven by a strong conviction to establish a constitutional system in Japan and to build a robust, independent nation. His intense dedication to learning, evident in his vast personal library and his self-study of advanced economic texts even while imprisoned, underscored his intellectual depth. His political assertiveness and the "Positive Constructive" policy, which involved leveraging local demands for infrastructure development to expand party influence, are considered to have laid the foundational prototype for modern Japanese party politics. Hoshi's decisive role in the establishment of Japan's constitutional system and the strengthening of its national power through active policies is widely recognized. Despite the persistent rumors of corruption, many contemporary and later accounts, including that of Hara Takashi, attested to his personal integrity, modesty in private life, and disinterest in personal financial gain, noting that he died leaving behind only debt.