Hiratsuka Raichō

1.1. Birth and Early Life

Hiratsuka Raichō was born Hiratsuka Haru on February 10, 1886, in Kōjimachi-ku, Tokyo (present-day Gobanchō, Chiyoda-ku), into a prosperous family. She was the youngest of three daughters. Her father, Hiratsuka Teijirō, was a high-ranking civil servant who worked for the Board of Audit of Japan and later lectured at First Higher School. Her mother, Tsuya, came from the Iijima family, who served as physicians to the Tayasu Tokugawa family, one of the Gosankyo (three collateral branches of the Tokugawa clan). Her parents were highly dedicated to education. From 1887, her father spent a year and a half observing Europe and America, influencing her early upbringing in a liberal, Western-oriented environment. However, around 1892, her father shifted to a more nationalistic approach to family education, coinciding with the end of the Rokumeikan era.

In 1894, her family moved to Komagome Akebono-chō in Hongō-ku (present-day Honkomagome, Bunkyō-ku). She transferred to Seishi Elementary School and, in 1898, entered the Tokyo Women's Higher Normal School Affiliated High School (present-day Ochanomizu University Senior High School), a model school for nationalistic education at the time. Dissatisfied with the emphasis on the "Good Wife, Wise Mother" ideology, she formed a "Pirate Group" with classmates and boycotted ethics classes. Hiratsuka was born with weak vocal cords, making her voice quiet and soft. Her quiet demeanor and reserved nature, as observed by her grandchildren, contrasted sharply with her public image as a fierce activist.

1.2. University Life and Intellectual Influences

In 1903, Hiratsuka enrolled in the Department of Home Economics at Japan Women's University (日本女子大学^Japanese, Nihon Joshi Daigaku), persuading her father who believed women did not need education beyond high school. She was drawn to the university's educational philosophy, which aimed to educate women "as persons, as women, and as citizens." However, with the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War the following year, the university's curriculum became increasingly nationalistic, leading to her disillusionment.

During this period, she immersed herself in religious and philosophical texts to understand her inner conflicts. In 1905, she discovered Zen Buddhism and began training at the Ryōbō-an (両忘庵^Japanese) Zen dojo in Nippori (present-day Ningen Zen Takuboku Dōjō). She achieved enlightenment through kōan practice and received the Buddhist name Ekun Zenko (慧薫禅子). After graduating from Japan Women's University in 1906, she continued her Zen practice while studying Chinese classics at Nishō Gakusha (present-day Nishogakusha University) and English at Joshi Eigakujuku (present-day Tsuda University). In 1907, she further attended Seibi Higher English Girls' School (成美高等英語女学校^Japanese).

It was at Seibi Higher English Girls' School that she first encountered literature through Goethe's *The Sorrows of Young Werther*, which ignited her passion for literature. She became a student of Ikuta Chōkō, a new teacher from Tokyo Imperial University, and joined the "Keishū Bungakkai" (閨秀文学会^Japanese), an extracurricular literary course organized by Ikuta and Morita Sōhei. Her debut novel, "The Last Day of Love," written at Ikuta's suggestion, was highly praised by Morita, leading to their romantic involvement. Hiratsuka was also deeply influenced by contemporary European philosophy, the Swedish feminist writer Ellen Key-whose works she translated into Japanese-and the individualistic heroine of Henrik Ibsen's 1879 play *A Doll's House*. During her time at Japan Women's University, she also explored the works of Baruch Spinoza, Meister Eckhart, and G. W. F. Hegel.

1.3. The Seitō Era and "In the beginning, woman was the sun"

In 1908, at the age of 22, Hiratsuka attempted a double suicide with Morita Sōhei, her teacher and a disciple of novelist Natsume Sōseki, in the snowy mountains near Otōtōge Pass in Nasushiobara, Tochigi Prefecture. The pair were rescued by police, but the incident, known as the Shiobara Incident or Baien Incident (named after Morita's novel *Baien* based on the event), was widely sensationalized by newspapers as a scandal involving a highly educated couple. This brought her widespread notoriety and public criticism, leading to her name being removed from Japan Women's University's alumni list (though it was reinstated in 1992).

Following the Shiobara Incident, Hiratsuka, strongly encouraged by Ikuta Chōkō, began the production of *Seitō* (青鞜^Japanese, literally "Bluestocking"), Japan's first literary magazine by and for women. The funding came from her mother's savings, originally intended for Hiratsuka's marriage. She established the Seitō-sha publishing house, with her classmates and peers contributing to its planning, while she focused on production. The first issue, published in September 1911, featured a cover illustration by Takamura Chieko (then Naganuma Chie) and a poem titled "Sozorogoto" by Yosano Akiko, famous for the line "The day the mountains move will come." Hiratsuka penned the inaugural essay, "In the beginning, woman was the sun" (「元始、女性は太陽であった」^Japanese), a reference to the Shinto sun goddess Amaterasu and a powerful call for women's spiritual independence, which she believed they had lost.

Adopting the pen name Raichō ("Thunderbird"), inspired by the ptarmigan, a bird she admired during her recovery in Nagano Prefecture after the Shiobara incident, she advocated for a women's spiritual revolution. The magazine garnered extreme reactions, with an outpouring of support from female readers and intense animosity from male readers and the press, who mocked Seitō-sha and even threw stones at Hiratsuka's home. Despite this, Raichō remained defiant, once writing in the editor's note that she "drank the most beer," a provocative statement.

The journal's focus gradually shifted from literature to women's issues, including candid discussions of female sexuality, chastity, and abortion. Contributors included renowned poet and women's rights proponent Yosano Akiko. In April 1913, her essay "To the Women of the World" (「世の婦人たちに」^Japanese) fiercely rejected the conventional role of women as ryōsai kenbo (良妻賢母^Japanese): "I wonder how many women have, for the sake of financial security in their lives, entered into loveless marriages to become one man's lifelong servant and prostitute." This nonconformity led to public labeling of the Seitō members as "new women."

The Seitō-sha also published other works, including Okamoto Kanoko's poetry collection *Karoki Netami* in late 1912 and *Seitō Shōsetsu-shū* in March 1913. Hiratsuka's debut collection of essays, *Marumado yori* (円窓より^Japanese, "The View from the Round Window"), published in May 1913, was banned immediately after its release for "destroying the family system and corrupting public morals." It was reissued in June 1913 under the title *Tozashi Aru Mado Nite* (※<外字。とざし>ある窓にて^Japanese, "From a Closed Window").

The magazine's radical content and the nonconformist behavior of its members, such as the "Five-color sake incident" (where Otaka Beniyoshi ordered colorful cocktails at a bar) and the "Yoshiwara brothel visit" (where Raichō, Otaka Beniyoshi, and Nakano Hatsuko visited a brothel with Otaka's uncle, the painter Otaka Chikuha), along with rumors of a homosexual relationship between Raichō and Beniyoshi, further fueled public outrage. In February 1913, an article by Fukuda Hideko in *Seitō* stating, "When communism is achieved, love and marriage will naturally become free," led to the issue being banned for "harming public order," causing Raichō's father to demand she leave home and prepare for independence.

The journal ceased publication in 1915, but not before establishing Hiratsuka as a leading figure in Japan's women's movement.

1.4. Personal Relationships and Social Controversies

In the summer of 1912, at the age of 26, Hiratsuka met Okumura Hiroshi (奥村博史^Japanese), a painter five years her junior, in Chigasaki. After a period of public controversy surrounding their relationship, she began living with him in an unconventional common-law marriage arrangement, rejecting the traditional marriage system and the "house" system. She became the head of her own branch family register and registered their two children as illegitimate. Okumura, a talented artist and stage performer, suffered from poor health (contracting tuberculosis shortly after their cohabitation) and struggled to sell his paintings, making Raichō the primary breadwinner through her writing. Their financial struggles heavily influenced her later advocacy for state support for mothers. The anecdote about the origin of the term "tsubame" (swallow) for a younger male lover stems from a letter Okumura wrote to Raichō when he decided to leave her, which she published in *Seitō*: "A swallow flew into a place where quiet water birds were playing peacefully and disturbed the peace. The young swallow flies away for the peace of the pond."

In 1915, due to the difficulty of balancing her family life with Okumura (who was ill) and her work for *Seitō*, she handed over the editorship of the magazine to Itō Noe. Under Noe's leadership, *Seitō* became more focused on anarchist discourse but ceased publication a year later after the Hikagejaya Incident, where Kamichika Ichiko stabbed Ōsugi Sakae, with whom Noe had begun a relationship. Hiratsuka and Okumura eventually formalized their marriage in 1941, primarily to ensure their son would not face disadvantages during his military service due to his illegitimate status.

In a 1917 essay titled "On the Permissibility of Contraception," Hiratsuka expressed a positive view of eugenics, advocating for birth control.

1.5. Feminist Activism

After relinquishing editorship of *Seitō*, Hiratsuka focused on caring for Okumura and raising their children. However, in 1918, a debate erupted when Yosano Akiko published "The Complete Independence of Women" in *Fujin Kōron* (婦人公論^Japanese), arguing that demanding state protection for motherhood was a form of dependency. Hiratsuka countered in the same magazine with "Is the Demand for Maternity Protection a Form of Dependency?", asserting that women's freedom and independence could only be meaningful with freedom in love and the establishment of motherhood. This sparked the "Maternity Protection Controversy" (母性保護論争^Japanese, Bosei-hogo ronsō), which was joined by Yamakawa Kikue (arguing true maternity protection was only possible in socialist countries) and Yamada Waka, becoming a major social phenomenon. Hiratsuka, influenced by Ellen Key's emphasis on motherhood, argued that complete financial independence was impractical for women at the time and that government financial assistance for maternity protection was necessary for women to establish their national and social existence, especially given the difficult conditions of female workers.

In 1919, after inspecting textile factories in Nagoya and being deeply affected by the harsh conditions of female laborers, Hiratsuka solidified her resolve for political action. On November 24, 1919, she announced the establishment of the New Women's Association (新婦人協会^Japanese, Shin-fujin kyokai) with the cooperation of fellow women's rights activists Ichikawa Fusae and Oku Mumeo. This was Japan's first women's organization dedicated to securing women's political and social freedoms, demanding women's suffrage and maternity protection. The association's organ, *Josei Dōmei* ("Women's Alliance"), also featured Hiratsuka's inaugural address.

The New Women's Association members, including Hiratsuka, were actively involved in various campaigns. A photograph from 1920 shows some of the key figures.

They submitted petitions for the revision of the House of Representatives Election Law, the amendment of Article 5 of the Police Security Regulations, and marriage restrictions and divorce claims against men with venereal disease. A meeting photograph from July 18, 1920, captures some of the prominent figures involved in these efforts.

This campaign was successful, and Article 5 was overturned in 1922, a significant victory. However, women's suffrage remained elusive in Japan at this time. The campaign to ban men with venereal disease from marrying, however, was unsuccessful and remains a controversial aspect of Hiratsuka's career, as it aligned her with the eugenics movement, arguing that the spread of venereal disease negatively impacted the "Japanese race."

In 1921, due to overwork and conflicts with Ichikawa Fusae, Hiratsuka withdrew from the association's management. Socialist women, including Itō Noe, Sakai Magara, and Yamakawa Kikue, formed the Sekirankai and criticized the New Women's Association and Hiratsuka. After Hiratsuka left and Ichikawa traveled to the United States, the New Women's Association continued its activities under the leadership of Sakamoto Makoto and Oku Mumeo, successfully amending Article 5 of the Police Security Regulations in 1922. However, its activities subsequently stagnated, and it disbanded in late 1923. Hiratsuka then largely focused on her writing career.

In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, Hiratsuka became involved in the consumer cooperative movement, believing it to be the most effective means of achieving widespread social reform. She also participated in the anarchist-leaning magazine *Fujin Sensen* ("Women's Front") led by Takamure Itsue. The following years saw her somewhat withdraw from the public eye, burdened by debt and her partner's health issues, though she continued to write and lecture.

1.6. Post-War Activities and Peace Movement

In the post-World War II era, Hiratsuka re-emerged as a prominent public figure through her involvement in the peace movement. In June 1950, the day after the outbreak of the Korean War, she, along with writer and activist Nogami Yaeko and three other members of the Japan Women's Movement (婦人運動家^Japanese), traveled to the United States. There, they presented US Secretary of State Dean Acheson with a request for a system that would allow Japan to remain neutral and pacifist. In December 1951, she formed the "Committee for Opposition to Rearmament by Women" to protest the peace treaty with Japan and the Japan-US Security Treaty.

On April 5, 1953, she established the Japan Women's Organizations' Federation (日本婦人団体連合会^Japanese, Nihon Fujin Dantai Rengōkai) and became its first chairperson. In December of the same year, she was appointed Vice President of the Women's International Democratic Federation. In 1955, she participated in the formation of the World Peace Appeal Seven Committee (世界平和アピール七人委員会^Japanese) and became a member. In 1960, she co-signed a statement advocating for complete disarmament and the abolition of the Japan-US Security Treaty.

On October 19, 1962, the New Japan Women's Association (新日本婦人の会^Japanese, Shin Nihon Fujin no Kai) was formed at the initiative of Hiratsuka, Iwasaki Chihiro, Nogami Yaeko, Hani Setsuko, Kishi Teruko, Kuwazawa Yoko, Kushida Fuki, Fukao Sumako, Tsuboi Sakae, and 23 other women. This organization remains active today.

Hiratsuka continued to advocate for women's rights and peace in the post-war era, actively campaigning against the Vietnam War. In 1966, she formed the "Vietnam Dialogue Group" (ベトナム話し合いの会^Japanese), and in July 1970, she established the "Vietnam Mother and Child Health Center" (ベトナム母と子保健センター^Japanese).

On February 18, 1964, her husband, Okumura Hiroshi, died at the Kanto Central Hospital in Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, from acute myeloid leukemia. Hiratsuka Raichō passed away on May 24, 1971, at Yoyogi Hospital in Sendagaya, Tokyo, at the age of 85, after suffering from gallbladder and bile duct cancer since 1970. Even during her hospitalization, she continued dictating her autobiography. Her Buddhist name is Meiō no Mikoto (明媼之命). The anniversary of her death, May 24, is known as "Raichō-ki" (らいてう忌^Japanese).

3.1. Original Works

• Marumado yori (『円窓より』^Japanese, The View from the Round Window, 1913)
• Tozashi Aru Mado Nite (『※<外字。とざし>ある窓にて』^Japanese, From a Closed Window, 1913)
• Gendai to Fujin no Seikatsu (『現代と婦人の生活』^Japanese, Modern Times and Women's Lives, 1914)
• Raichō Daisan Bunshū Gendai no Danjo e (『らいてう第三文集 現代の男女へ』^Japanese, Raichō's Third Collection: To Modern Men and Women, 1917)
• Fujin to Kodomo no Kenri (『婦人と子供の権利』^Japanese, Women's and Children's Rights, 1919)
• Josei no Kotoba (『女性の言葉』^Japanese, Words of Women, 1926)
• Raichō Zuihitsu-shū Kumo Kusa Hito (『らいてう随筆集 雲・草・人』^Japanese, Raichō's Essay Collection: Clouds, Grass, People, 1933)
• Haha no Kotoba (『母の言葉』^Japanese, Mother's Words, 1937)
• Watakushi no aruita michi (『私の歩いた道』^Japanese, The Road I Walked, 1955)

3.2. Autobiography

• Genshi, josei wa taiyō de atta (『元始、女性は太陽であった』^Japanese, In The Beginning Woman Was The Sun), Ohtsuki Shoten, 1971-1973 (4 volumes)
  • Volume 1 (1971)
  • Volume 2 (1971)
  • Volume 3 (1972)
  • Volume 4 (1973)
  • Revised edition in Ohtsuki Shoten's Kokumin Bunko series (1992, 4 volumes)

3.3. Co-authored Works

• Boshi Zuihitsu (『母子随筆』^Japanese, Mother and Child Essays), with Hiratsuka Akemi, Tōki Shoin, 1948.

3.4. Edited Works

• Warera Haha Nareba Heiwa o Inoru Haha-tachi no Shuki (『われら母なれば 平和を祈る母たちの手記』^Japanese, Because We Are Mothers: Memoirs of Mothers Praying for Peace), supervised with Kushida Fuki, Seidō-sha, 1951.

3.5. Translations

• Ellen Key, The Renaissance of Motherhood (『母性の復興』^Japanese, Bosei no fukkō, 1919)
• Ellen Key, Love and Marriage (『愛と結婚』^Japanese, Ai to kekkon)
• John Stuart Mill, The Subjection of Women (『婦人の隷属』^Japanese, Fujin no Reizoku, 1929)

3.6. Collected Works

• Hiratsuka Raichō Chosakushū (『平塚らいてう著作集』^Japanese, Collected Works of Hiratsuka Raichō), Ohtsuki Shoten, 1983-1984 (8 volumes including a supplementary volume)
  • Volume 1: Seitō (青鞜^Japanese)
  • Volume 2: Bosei no Shuchō ni tsuite (母性の主張について^Japanese, On the Assertion of Motherhood)
  • Volume 3: Shakai Kaizō ni taisuru Fujin no Shimei (社会改造に対する婦人の使命^Japanese, Women's Mission for Social Reform)
  • Volume 4: Mushiro Sei o Reihai seyo (むしろ性を礼拝せよ^Japanese, Rather, Worship Sexuality)
  • Volume 5: Fujin Sensen ni Sanka shite (婦人戦線に参加して^Japanese, Participating in the Women's Front)
  • Volume 6: Musume ni Haha no Isan o Kataru (娘に母の遺産を語る^Japanese, Telling My Daughter About My Mother's Legacy)
  • Volume 7: Watakushi wa Eien ni Shitsubō shinai (私は永遠に失望しない^Japanese, I Will Never Despair)
  • Supplementary Volume: Photos, Letters, Chronology, Bibliography
• Hiratsuka Raichō Hyōronshū (『平塚らいてう評論集』^Japanese, Collected Essays of Hiratsuka Raichō), edited by Kobayashi Tomie and Yoneda Sayoko, Iwanami Shoten, 1987.