Ichikawa Fusae

2.1. New Women's Association

In 1919, Ichikawa co-founded the New Women's Association (新婦人協会_{Shin-fujin kyokai}^Japanese) with pioneering Japanese feminist Hiratsuka Raicho. This organization marked a significant turning point as the first Japanese group explicitly formed to improve the status and welfare of women. Under Ichikawa's leadership, the association campaigned for changes to Japanese laws that prohibited women's political participation, notably Article 5 of the Public Order and Police Law. Since women were legally barred from engaging in direct political campaigns, the organization ingeniously held "lecture meetings" to circumvent the law and advance their objectives. Their relentless efforts ultimately led to the overturning of this prohibitive law by the Imperial Diet in 1922. Following this success, the New Women's Association disbanded.

2.2. Women's Suffrage League of Japan

Two years later, in July 1921, Ichikawa traveled to the United States as a special correspondent for the Yomiuri Shimbun. While there, she immersed herself in the American women's and labor movements, studying their strategies and meeting prominent figures such as Alice Paul and Carrie Chapman Catt.

Upon her return to Japan in January 1924, she began working for the Tokyo branch office of the International Labour Organization (ILO), where she conducted investigations into issues like women's night labor until her resignation in 1927. On December 13, 1924, she founded Japan's first organization specifically dedicated to women's suffrage, initially named the "Association for the Promotion of Women's Suffrage" (Fujin Sanseiken Kakutoku Kisei Domeikai). Following the establishment of universal male suffrage in 1925, the association was renamed the Women's Suffrage League of Japan (日本婦人有権者同盟_{Nippon fujin yûkensha dômei}^Japanese), also known as Fusen Kakutoku Domei.

The League, working closely with figures like Shigeri Yamataka, who later served in the House of Councillors, continued to press the government and parliament for women's suffrage. In 1930, it hosted the country's first national convention focused on women's enfranchisement. Although a bill granting women full civic rights passed the House of Representatives that same year, it was ultimately defeated by the House of Peers. Beyond suffrage, Ichikawa also engaged in various social movements aimed at protecting mothers and children and defending livelihoods. Around 1937, she served as a trustee for the Tokyo Women's Hall.

4.1. Electoral Reform and Clean Politics

Ichikawa was deeply concerned with the integrity of democratic processes, particularly the issue of election corruption. In 1933, her efforts to combat such corruption led to the establishment of the Women's Association to Clean Tokyo Politics. Her dedication to clean elections also resulted in her appointment as one of five female trustees in an official government body, the Central Association to Clean Up Elections. Throughout her political career, she championed an "ideal election" campaigning style, characterized by a reliance on personal supporters rather than large organizations or significant financial expenditure. She advocated for other candidates to adopt this method, believing it would lead to a more equitable and democratic electoral system. However, this approach was sometimes criticized, notably by Daizaburo Hashizume, who argued that such low-cost campaigns were only feasible for already famous individuals like Ichikawa and therefore did not offer a practical systemic reform for broader political participation.

4.2. Wartime Involvement and Controversies

During World War II, Ichikawa adopted a strategic approach, believing that by cooperating with national policy and supporting the war effort, women could eventually gain greater political rights. In 1940, the Women's Suffrage League, which she had founded, was dissolved and integrated into the "Women's Current Affairs Study Group" (婦人時局研究会_{Fujin Jikyoku Kenkyukai}^Japanese). By 1942, various women's organizations, including hers, were consolidated into the Great Japan Women's Association (大日本婦人会_{Dai-Nippon Fujinkai}^Japanese). Ichikawa accepted appointments within these wartime structures, becoming a director of the Dai-Nippon Genron Hokokukai (Greater Japan Patriotic Speech Association) in 1942, an organization formed under the guidance of the Cabinet Information Bureau. She also served as secretary of the Central Association for National Spiritual Mobilization, a government-formed body aimed at increasing popular support for the war, and as a trustee of the Great Japan Women's Association, which coordinated civilian support efforts.

These roles, while undertaken with the aim of advancing women's position, aligned her with the wartime government's agenda and later drew significant criticism. For instance, in December 1943, she delivered a lecture in Kawaguchi Village, Minamitama District, Tokyo (now Hachioji City). In June 1944, she evacuated to Kawaguchi Village, where she and her adoptive daughter, Misao Mashita, began cultivating a 1066 ft^{2 (99 m2)} plot of land, transforming a forest into a vegetable garden. Her actions during this period have been subject to historical scrutiny and evaluation, acknowledging the controversial nature of her engagement with wartime organizations and her alignment with the government's efforts during World War II.

4.3. Post-War Activism

Immediately after the war, on August 25, 1945, Ichikawa, along with Ochimi Kubushiro, Shigeri Yamataka, and Tsuneko Akamatsu, formed the "Post-War Measures Women's Committee" to continue demanding women's suffrage from the government and various political parties.

Her post-war activism also extended to advocating for social morality. On November 2, 1951, she established the "Council Against Revival of Prostitution System" (公娼制度復活反対協議会_{Kōshō Seido Fukkatsu Hantai Kyōgikai}^Japanese), spearheading the anti-prostitution movement. Furthermore, on December 19, 1951, she collaborated with Raicho Hiratsuka and Tano Kamidai to form the "Women's Committee Against Rearmament" (再軍備反対婦人委員会_{Sai-gunbi Hantai Fujin Iinkai}^Japanese), reflecting her commitment to peace.

Ichikawa remained a tireless champion of women's issues, consistently organizing and participating in women's conferences both within Japan and internationally. In 1980, she became a leading voice in urging the Japanese government to ratify the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), demonstrating her continued dedication to global gender equality. She also cooperated with the anti-Unification Church movement, joining the "Association to Worry About the Principle Movement" as a convener in 1978.

5.1. Public Office Purge and Return

Following World War II, Ichikawa was among those subjected to the public office purge implemented by the Allied occupation authorities. On March 24, 1947, she was excluded from political and governmental offices due to her role as a director of the Dai-Nippon Genron Hokokukai during the war. She holds the distinction of being the first woman to be purged from public office. This decision was justified by the GHQ with the argument that "duties and penalties are equal in a gender-equal world."

The purge was eventually lifted on October 13, 1950. Immediately upon her return to public life, on November 9, 1950, she resumed her role as president of the New Japan Women's League, which was subsequently renamed the Japan Women's Voters League (日本婦人有権者同盟_{Nippon Fujin Yūkensha Dōmei}^Japanese). This marked her swift return to active advocacy for women's rights.

5.2. Activities in the House of Councillors

On March 23, 1953, Ichikawa resigned as president of the Japan Women's Voters League. On April 24, 1953, she successfully ran as an independent candidate in the 3rd House of Councillors ordinary election from the Tokyo electoral district, securing her first term in the Diet. This marked the beginning of a remarkable political career spanning five terms in total, across both the Tokyo electoral district (where she served 1953-1971) and later the national constituency (1974-1981).

Ichikawa's campaigning style was unique, often referred to as an "ideal election." She largely eschewed reliance on political organizations and significant funding, instead relying on personal supporters who campaigned voluntarily. She actively promoted this low-cost election method to other candidates, believing it would foster cleaner politics. However, this approach faced criticism from some, such as Daizaburo Hashizume, who argued that it was only feasible for already well-known figures and thus not a viable systemic reform. Within the Diet, she never formally belonged to a political party, choosing instead to be part of the "Dainiin Club," a collective of independent members. Her legislative priorities consistently centered on women's issues and electoral reforms.

In July 1954, the Women's Problem Research Institute began publishing its professional journal, Fujinkai Tenbo (Trends in the Women's World). On October 2, 1962, the Women's Suffrage Hall in Shibuya, Yoyogi, became the "Women's Suffrage Hall Foundation," integrating with the Women's Problem Research Institute. The journal was then renamed Fujin Tenbo (Women's Outlook) starting from the January 1963 issue.

Ichikawa also collaborated with diverse figures on various issues. For instance, she supported Kanji Ishihara, a controversial figure, whom she regarded as a "person of integrity" and a "fine soldier." In 1963, she joined the "Drug Eradication and Land Purification Alliance," which involved cooperation with right-wing figures such as Seigen Tanaka, a former leader of the Yamaguchi-gumi yakuza organization, and novelist Sochihachi Yamaoka. On November 30, 1964, she joined ten other prominent women, including Michiko Ikeda, Fumie Ohara, Shikako Kaminchika, Tanie Kitabayashi, Fukiko Sayo, Harumi Setouchi, Tomoko Naraoka, Etsuko Miyake, and Shigeko Yuki, in appealing for a fair trial in the Tokushima Radio Store Murder Case, where Shigeo Fuji had been convicted.

In July 1965, she was re-elected for her third term in the 7th House of Councillors election. On October 15, 1965, during a ceremony commemorating 75 years of national suffrage, 40 years of universal suffrage, and 20 years of women's suffrage, Ichikawa received a special commendation for her contributions to women's suffrage. However, when she was informally offered the Order of the Sacred Treasure, Second Class, she immediately declined, consistent with her belief that conferring honors in a democracy was inappropriate as it "creates ranks among people." She similarly declined the Order of the Precious Crown, Second Class, in the spring of 1978.

On February 25, 1967, she publicly expressed her intention to resign as president of the Japan Women's Voters League to support Ryokichi Minobe, the joint candidate of the Japan Socialist Party and the Japanese Communist Party, in the 1967 Tokyo gubernatorial election. She became a representative of the "Association for a Bright Progressive Tokyo Metropolitan Government." In 1968, recognizing the need for Japanese women in international organizations, Ichikawa persuaded Sadako Ogata, then an international politics lecturer at International Christian University, to join Japan's delegation to the United Nations General Assembly. This proved to be a turning point, initiating Ogata's distinguished career at the UN.

In the July 1971 9th House of Councillors election, running from the Tokyo electoral district, Ichikawa lost her re-election bid, placing sixth. In 1972, regarding the Okinawa reversion secret agreement scandal, she, along with Takako Doi, Shizuko Sasaki, and Sumiko Tanaka of the Japan Socialist Party, formed the "Association to Consider Ms. Hasumi's Issue," focusing solely on the aspect of "collusion" rather than broader implications.

In February 1974, she initially declined requests to run in the House of Councillors election due to her age (81). However, following a passionate appeal from youth groups, she eventually accepted the nomination to run for the national constituency. Kan Naoto served as her election campaign manager during this period. On July 7, 1974, Ichikawa was re-elected for her fourth term in the 10th House of Councillors ordinary election. That same year, fashion designer Issey Miyake gifted her clothes, and a photo of Ichikawa wearing them by Kishin Shinoyama graced the cover of Asahi Graph magazine, sparking wide discussion. On November 22, 1975, she chaired the "International Women's Year Japan Convention," held at Kyoritsu Kodo with 41 women's organizations. She also chaired the "Liaison Council for the Implementation of Resolutions of the International Women's Year Japan Convention" (now the International Women's Year Liaison Group).

In 1979, at the age of 86, Ichikawa was ranked first in a Croissant magazine poll for readers' favorite "female face," garnering more than double the votes of second-place Momoe Yamaguchi. She famously stated that she "never used makeup, only applied cream after a bath." In the June 1980 12th House of Councillors ordinary election (a double election with the House of Representatives), at the age of 87, she achieved the highest number of votes in the national constituency, further cementing her enduring popularity and influence. She was also the oldest member of the House of Councillors from 1977 until her death in 1981.

9.1. Death

On January 16, 1981, Ichikawa was admitted to the Japanese Red Cross Medical Center in Shibuya, Tokyo, after complaining of chest pain. She remained under medical care until her death on February 11, 1981, at 7:13 AM, due to myocardial infarction (heart attack). She was 87 years old. Her grave is located at Fuji Cemetery.

Immediately following her death, the House of Councillors formally recognized her contributions. On February 13, two days after her passing, the Speaker of the House of Councillors delivered a memorial address and honored her with the "Permanent Member of the House of Councillors" award. On February 27, a eulogy for Ichikawa was delivered by Shigeru Ishimoto during a plenary session of the House of Councillors. Her hometown, Bisai City, also named her an honorary citizen; this honor was later transferred to Ichinomiya City following a merger.

9.2. Posthumous Influence and Memorials

Ichikawa's impact continued to be felt after her death. In 1981, the documentary film The Eighty-Seven-Year-Old Youth - Fusae Ichikawa's Life Story, directed and written by Eiji Murayama, was released, chronicling her life and activism.

On November 15, 1983, the Women's Suffrage Hall, which Ichikawa founded, underwent extensive renovation and expansion. A "Fusae Ichikawa Memorial Exhibition Room" was established on the second floor of the building. On the same day, the Women's Suffrage Hall Foundation was renamed the "Fusae Ichikawa Memorial Association" (市川房枝記念会_{Ichikawa Fusae Kinenkai}^Japanese). In 2009, this foundation was further renamed the "Fusae Ichikawa Memorial Association Center for Women and Governance" (公益財団法人市川房枝記念会女性と政治センター_{Kōeki Zaidan Hōjin Ichikawa Fusae Kinenkai Josei to Seiji Sentā}^Japanese), and it transitioned to a public interest foundation on April 1, 2013, continuing her work in promoting women's political participation and gender equality.

The activities of the Japan Women's Voters League were largely carried forward by Teiko Kihira, who served as Ichikawa's secretary and later became a member of the House of Councillors. However, due to an aging and declining membership, the League ultimately dissolved in April 2016.

The National Diet Library holds a significant resource in Ichikawa's "Political Discourse Recordings," a comprehensive seven-hour interview recorded in March and May 1978. Initially planned for public release 30 years later, in 2008, it was made accessible earlier due to demand from organizations like the Ichikawa Fusae Memorial Association, providing invaluable insights into her thoughts on politics and women's enfranchisement.