Fazang

3.1. Early Life and Background

Born in 643 in Chang'an (modern-day Xi'an), the capital of the Tang dynasty, Fazang came from a family of Sogdian immigrants. His family resided in an ethnically Sogdian enclave within the imperial capital, and while they had become culturally Chinese, their Central Asian origins were notable. His father, Kang Mi, held an official position in the Tang court, and accounts suggest his grandfather's affluence may have facilitated his father's rise in aristocratic circles despite their immigrant status. Less is known about his mother, though Chinese biographies recount that she became pregnant after "dreaming of swallowing rays of sunshine."

Fazang developed an early interest in Buddhism. At the age of fifteen, he performed a popular religious practice of the time by setting his finger on fire in front of an "Ayuwang shelita," a pagoda at Famen Temple believed to enshrine a finger bone of the Buddha.

3.2. Education and Ordination

Initially, Fazang was disappointed in his search for a suitable teacher in Chang'an. This led him to Mount Zhongnan, where he pursued a period of seclusion. During this time, he dedicated himself to studying Mahayana sutras, particularly the Avatamsaka Sutra. He also engaged in Daoist practices, including the consumption of herbal elixirs.

After several years in seclusion, Fazang returned to Chang'an upon learning of his parents' illness. It was there that he met his first and primary teacher, Zhiyan, impressing him with his profound knowledge of the Avatamsaka Sutra. Fazang began his lay discipleship with Zhiyan around 663, though his studies involved extensive travel, and he did not remain continuously with his master. Before Zhiyan's passing in 668, he entrusted Fazang to the care of his two vinaya masters, Daocheng and Baochen. Daocheng was appointed as one of the three principals of the newly constructed Taiyuansi monastery in Chang'an, where Fazang would eventually enter the Buddhist priesthood. While some early biographical sources presented Fazang's ordination in a miraculous context or suggested he was overqualified for bodhisattva-precepts, these accounts are now seen as attempts to validate the lack of definitive evidence regarding his full ordination.

Fazang's "dharma family" or spiritual lineage is better documented than his blood relatives. Beyond Zhiyan, Daocheng and Baochen provided additional influence. He had numerous fellow-disciples, with four primary names recorded: Huixiao, Huaiji, Huizhao, and most notably, Uisang, who later founded Hwaeom Buddhism in Korea. Other known disciples include a nun named Facheng, two additional Korean disciples, and his Chinese biographer, Qianli. His direct disciples also included Wen Chao and Hui Yuan.

3.3. Activities in the Tang Dynasty

Fazang's monastic life, which began after 670, saw him divide his time between Mount Zhongnan (at Wuzhensi and Zhixiangsi) and Taiyuansi in the capital. He frequently lectured on the Avatamsaka Sutra, disseminating its teachings.

4.1. Translated Works

Fazang was a key figure in numerous translation projects, often collaborating with prominent Indian and Chinese masters.

• Gaṇḍavyūha Sūtra (Ru fajie pin, 入法界品_{Chapter on Entering the Realm of Dharma}^Chinese): Translated with the Indian master Divākara, this extended edition of the final section of the Avatamsaka Sutra was crucial for completing the Chinese Avatamsaka canon.
• Ghanavyūha Sūtra (Mahāyāna Secret Adornment Sūtra, 大乘密嚴經_{Dà chéng mì yán jīng}^Chinese): Another significant sutra translated in collaboration with Divākara.
• Avatamsaka Sutra (80-fascicle edition): Fazang participated in Śikṣānanda's translation efforts from 695 to 699, helping to translate and edit this extensive version.
• Two independent chapters of the Avatamsaka Sutra: Translated with Devendraprajña (Tiyunbore) in 688, these chapters are Da fangguang fo huayanjing xiuci fen (大方廣佛華嚴經修慈分^Chinese) and Da fangguang fo huayan jing busiyi fo jingjie fen (大方廣佛華嚴經不思議佛境界分^Chinese).
• Lankavatara Sutra: Fazang collaborated with Śikṣānanda's team on a new translation, completed in 704. Fazang considered the Lankavatara to be one of the definitive sutras.
• Mahāratnakūṭa Sutra (Da Baoji jing): He joined Bodhiruci's translation team for this project in 706, which was completed in 713.

4.2. Original Works

Fazang authored approximately 30 works, totaling over 100 fascicles, which are foundational texts for Huayan Buddhism.

• Huayan jing tanxuan ji (華嚴經探玄記_{Record of Investigating the Mystery of the Huayan jing}^Chinese): His magnum opus, a comprehensive commentary on the Avatamsaka Sutra in 60 fascicles.
• Jin shizi zhang (金獅子章_{The Treatise on Golden Lion}^Chinese): A concise essay that encapsulates the core teachings of Huayan Buddhism, particularly the relationship between principle and phenomena.
• Huayan wujiao zhang (華嚴五教章_{Treatise on the Five Huayan Teachings}^Chinese): This work contains the key panjiao (doctrinal classification) system of Huayan. It is also known as Paragraphs on the Doctrine of Difference and Identity of the One Vehicle of Huayan (Huayan yisheng jiaoyi fenqi zhang, 華嚴一乘教分齊章^Chinese, T. 1866).
• The Gist of the Huayan Sutra (Hua-yen ching chih kuei).
• Outline of the Text and Doctrine of the Huayan Sutra (Hua-yen ching wen i kang mu).
• Dasheng qixin lun yiji (大乘起信論義紀_{Commentary on the Treatise of the Mahayana Awakening of Faith}^Chinese): One of the most important commentaries on this treatise.
• Huayan jing wenyi gangmu (華嚴經文義綱目_{Essentials of the Teachings of Huayan Jing}^Chinese, Taisho 35, no. 1734): This text explains the "ten mysteries" doctrine.
• Commentary on the Brahmajala Sutra (Fanwang jing pusa jieben shu, Taisho 40, no. 1813).
• Commentary to the Lankavatara Sutra.
• A Record Conveying the Meaning of the Tenets of the Treatise on the Twelve Gates: A commentary to Nagarjuna's Treatise on the Twelve Gates (十二門論_Shiermenlun^Chinese, T. 1568).
• Cultivation of Contemplation of the Inner Meaning of the Huayen: The Ending of Delusion and Return to the Source (Hsiu hua-yen ao chih wang chin huan yuan kuan): Written in his old age as a concise summary of Huayan teaching.
• Dasheng miyan jing shu (大乘密嚴經疏^Chinese, no. X368 in the supplement to the Taisho canon, Xu zang jing 續藏經^Chinese vol. 34): A commentary to the Ghanavyūha Sūtra.
• Dasheng fajie wu chabie lun bingxu (大乘法界無差別論疏 并序^Chinese, Taisho no. 1838): A commentary on Saramati's Dasheng fajie wu chabie lun (Skt. Dharmadhātu-aviśeṣa śāstra; Treatise on the Non-Distinction of the Dharmadhātu of Mahāyana, Taisho no. 1626).
• Yusim Beopgyegi (有心法界記_{Treatise on the Mind-only Dharmadhatu}^Chinese): 1 fascicle.
• Huayan Mundap (華嚴問答_{Questions and Answers on Huayan}^Chinese): 2 fascicles.
• Huayan Jing Zhuanji (華嚴經傳記_{Record of the Transmission of the Huayan Sutra}^Chinese): 5 fascicles.
• The Huayan fajie guanmen (華嚴法界觀門_{Method of Mental Examination on the Realm of Dharma}^Chinese) has been traditionally attributed to Dushun (557-640), but some scholars argue that it was actually authored by Fazang.

5.1. Dependent Arising and Interpenetration

Fazang's interpretation of the classic Buddhist principle of pratītyasamutpāda (dependent arising) is foundational to Huayan philosophy. He depicts the cosmos as an infinite network of interdependent and interpenetrating phenomena (dharmas), forming a single, holistic universal dharma realm. This unique Huayan perspective on dependent arising is termed "dharmadhatu dependent arising" (法界緣起_{fajie yuanqi}^Chinese). According to this theory, countless dharmas, representing the wisdom of the Buddha's pure mind or one-mind, exist in a state of mutual dependence, interfusion, and balance, free from contradiction.

The central and unique aspect of this view is the "interpenetration" (xiangru) of all phenomena and their "perfect interfusion" (圓融_yuanrong^Chinese). This holistic theory asserts that any phenomenon exists only as part of the whole; its existence is contingent upon the entire network of all other phenomena, which are equally fused, interdependent, and mutually determined (xiangji) by each other. As Bryan Van Norden explains, "one is all," because the identity of any one thing depends on the identities of other things, and "all is one," because the whole depends on its parts. Fazang articulated this as "one is many, many is one" (yi ji duo, duo ji yi), meaning the existence and nature of any phenomenon determines and is determined by the sum of all phenomena. Similarly, "one in many, many in one" (yi zhong duo, duo zhong yi) signifies that any phenomenon penetrates and is penetrated by the existence and nature of the sum of all phenomena.

Alan Fox describes interpenetration as the idea that all particular events "overlap and coexist simultaneously and at all times, without conflict or obstruction." Therefore, the existence of any object at any moment is a function of its context within the entire network of relations in the universe. This profound interconnectedness leads to all phenomena being fused together without obstruction, forming a perfectly harmonious whole-the entire universe, the Dharmadhatu.

To explain the depth of interpenetration and non-obstruction, Fazang utilized the schema of "ten profound principles" (shi xuanmen). Antonio S. Cua summarizes this as a vision of perfect harmony where all phenomenal beings mutually penetrate and determine each other, regardless of size or temporal distinctions. Each entity is like a jewel in Indra's net, both penetrating and being penetrated by all others, simultaneously appearing as the center of the phenomenal realm and one of its elements. Even the most minute entity contains the whole universe and exemplifies total non-obstruction.

5.2. Illustrations of Interpenetration

Fazang was renowned for his use of various similes, demonstrations, and metaphors to elucidate his complex philosophical ideas, making them more accessible. These included Indra's net, the rafter and the building, and the hall of mirrors. Interfusion was not merely a philosophical theory but also a method of contemplation and Buddhist practice, a way to observe and understand the nature of reality.

Fazang's "Rafter Dialogue" employs an extended metaphor of the relationship between a rafter (a part) and a building (a whole) to explain Huayan metaphysics. This dialogue is part of his larger treatise, Paragraphs on the Doctrine of Difference and Identity of the One Vehicle of Huayan. In this metaphor, the building, representing the universe or the entire realm of phenomena, is nothing more than the sum of its parts. An individual rafter, or any individual phenomenon, is essential to the building's identity. Conversely, the rafter is fused with the building because its identity as a rafter depends on its being part of the building. Thus, any individual dharma (phenomenon) is necessarily dependent on the entirety of all dharmas in the universe (the dharmadhatu), signifying that dharmas lack metaphysical independence. However, dharmas retain their distinctness due to their unique and particular function within the total web of dependent causes and conditions. Fazang stated, "each part is identical [in making the whole and in allowing each part to be what it is], and they are identical because they are different."

In another famous illustration, Fazang used ten mirrors arranged in an octagon, with two additional mirrors above and below, and a Buddha image and a torch at the center. When a torch was ignited in the center, the room filled with reflections within reflections of the torch and the Buddha. This demonstration effectively conveyed the Huayan view of reality as a web of causal relations, where each "node" or interstice lacks essential identity, and each contains and is contained by everything else.

5.3. The Perfect Interfusion of the Six Characteristics

The Rafter Dialogue also introduces the schema of the "perfect interfusion of the six characteristics" (六相圓融_{liuxiang yuanrong}^Chinese), which provides six ways of understanding the relationship between parts and wholes, as well as between parts themselves. This schema offers six mereological perspectives on phenomena, further explaining perfect interfusion and how wholeness and diversity remain balanced within it.

The six characteristics are:

• Wholeness / universality (zongxiang): Each dharma (like a rafter) is characterized by wholeness because it contributes to creating a whole (like a building), and each dharma is indispensable to the whole.
• Particularity / distinctness (biexiang): A dharma is characterized by particularity (e.g., a specific rafter) insofar as it is a numerically distinct particular, different from the whole.
• Identity / sameness (tongxiang): Each dharma shares a certain identity with all other parts of the whole, as they all mutually form the whole without conflict.
• Difference (yixiang): Each dharma is different, possessing distinct functions and appearances, even while being part of a single whole.
• Integration (chengxiang): Each dharma is integrated with other dharmas in forming each other and the whole, and each dharma does not interfere with any other dharma.
• Non-integration / disintegration (huaixiang): This refers to the fact that each part maintains its unique activity and retains its individuality while contributing to the whole.

This schema illustrates how all things are in a state of mutual correspondence and interfusion, and how all phenomena are completely non-dual. Fazang also used this framework to caution against the extremes of "annihilationism" (seeing phenomena as non-existent) and "eternalism" (seeing phenomena as uncaused, independent, and eternal), both of which the Buddha rejected in favor of the "Middle Way". Fazang's six characteristics therefore represent an attempt to provide an ontological middle way.

5.4. The Relationship between Principle (li) and Phenomena (shi)

In his celebrated Essay on the Golden Lion (Taisho no. 1881), Fazang succinctly explains a fundamental principle of Huayan thought: the relationship between the ultimate principle or pattern (li 理) and relative phenomena/events/things (shi 事). He uses the metaphor of a golden lion statue to illuminate this concept.

The gold of the statue symbolizes the unified, underlying Pattern of relationships, while the lion's appearance represents the perception of things as independent individuals. According to Fazang, one must recognize that what ultimately exists is the Pattern of relationships among momentary events (there is only gold, not a separate lion). However, it is also pragmatic and appropriate to continue speaking as if independent, persistent individuals exist (the gold appears to be a lion). In Huayan Buddhism, li, the principle or pattern, is the ultimate reality (paramārtha-satya) experienced by Buddhas, described as a "boundless and ceaseless activity that has a patterned coherence."

Fazang asserts that li is boundless and ceaseless, while phenomena (shi) are impermanent, relative, and limited. The metaphor demonstrates that because the boundless principle (the gold) remains empty and lacks a permanent nature (zixing), it can manifest in many relative forms (like the various shapes that constitute the lion statue). It also clarifies that while an object appears as an independent thing, it ultimately lacks any independent existence apart from the ultimate principle. Even though conventional phenomena do not fully represent the ultimate principle, they can still be pragmatically understood as relative apparent phenomena. A crucial aspect of this metaphor is that the ultimate principle and relative phenomena are interdependent, unified, and interfused, meaning they are non-dual.

5.5. The Three Natures (sanxing)

Drawing on the Awakening of Faith, Fazang offers a unique interpretation of the Yogacara theory of the Three Natures (Skt. tri-svabhāva; 三性_sanxing^Chinese): the "discriminate nature" (fenbie xing), "dependent nature" (yita xing), and "true nature" (zhenshi xing). The Awakening of Faith posits one mind (the pure buddha-nature) with two aspects (a samsaric and a nirvanic aspect). Fazang extends this model, arguing that each of the three natures also possesses two aspects: a fundamental, unchanging, pure, and empty aspect, and a derivative, fully interdependent, conditioned, and relative aspect.

The most fundamental of the three, the "true nature," is equated with the tathagatagarbha (buddha-nature). This "true nature" exhibits a dual character: "being immutable" (bubian), referring to its pure aspect, and "responding to conditions" (suiyuan), which describes the buddha-nature influenced by ignorance. The conditioned aspect of buddha-nature gives rise to the phenomenal world, leading to the "dependent nature." This "dependent nature" also has two aspects: "without self-nature" (wuxing), as all dharmas depend on the tathagatagarbha for their existence, and a "semblance of existence" (shiyou), meaning it appears to exist independently. Ordinary beings, failing to grasp the true nature of the dependent nature, mistakenly perceive phenomena as truly independent, giving rise to the "discriminate nature." The dual aspects of this discriminate nature are "being inexistent in reality" (liwu), where imagined phenomena are non-existent, and "appearing to be existent to the senses" (qingyou).

Fazang emphasizes that each of the two aspects within the three natures are non-dual and interconnected/interfused with all others. Thus, despite speaking of two aspects, he states they "completely encompass one another, forming one, not two natures." Similarly, the three natures do not conflict or obstruct each other, allowing for a harmony between the unchanging "base" (ben) or "true origin" (zhenyuan) and the phenomenal "derivatives" (mo, or "false derivatives," wangmo), both of which perfectly interfuse and pervade one another. Fazang further argues that since each of the three natures has derivative aspects, they must also possess their fundamental aspect.

5.6. Nature Origination (xingqi) and Vairocana Buddha

Fazang's doctrine of "nature origination" (xingqi) is a core concept in his philosophy. According to his commentary on the Mahayana Awakening of Faith, all phenomena (dharmas) originate from a single ultimate source, the "nature" or "One Mind." This source is variously identified as Suchness, the tathagatagarbha (the womb of tathagatas), buddha-nature, or simply "nature." This nature is the ontological source and basis of all things, existing prior to any objects or conscious subjects. The term "nature-origination" derives from chapter 32 of the Avatamsaka Sutra, titled Nature Origination of the Jewel King Tathagata (Baowang rulai xingqi pin, Skt. Tathâgatotpatti-sambhava-nirdesa-sûtra).

For Fazang, nature origination signifies "the appearance of the Absolute in the phenomenal world," manifested as the Tathagata appearing as a teacher for the benefit of living beings and the wisdom of the Tathagata appearing within living beings. This pure nature is not separate from living beings or any phenomena in the universe, as the Buddha manifests in the world only due to the needs of sentient beings and would not appear if there were no impure phenomena. Therefore, for Fazang, the ultimate nature is non-dual with all relative phenomena and interconnected with them. The source itself is empty of self-existence (svabhava) and is not an essential nature independent of all things; rather, it is interdependent on the whole of all phenomena.

Fazang explained nature-origination from two perspectives: cause and fruit. From the causal perspective, "nature" refers to the buddha-nature inherent in all living beings, which remains obscured by defilements. When these defilements are removed, the manifestation of buddha-nature constitutes "nature-origination." Drawing on the Buddha-nature treatise, Fazang further identifies three kinds of nature and origination: principle, practice, and fruit (li xing guo). Principle-nature is the Buddha-nature inherent in beings before Buddhist practice. Practice-nature is the Buddha-nature within those who practice Buddhism. Fruit-nature is the Buddha-nature of practitioners who have attained enlightenment. From the perspective of the fruit, "nature" refers to the nature realized upon attaining Buddhahood, and nature-origination signifies the functions of the innumerable wonderful buddha qualities and powers.

Fazang and the Huayan tradition venerate a specific understanding of the universe as the very body of the supreme cosmic Buddha Vairocana (whose name means "The Illuminator"). Vairocana's body is an infinite one that encompasses the entire universe. His light permeates all phenomena in the cosmos, his life is infinite, and his teachings and manifestations are omnipresent. Vairocana is equated with the ultimate principle (li), serving as "the substance underlying phenomenal reality." This ultimate reality is both immutable and yet dynamically changes according to conditions, emanating everything in the phenomenal world. It is thus simultaneously unchanging and interdependent (and therefore empty) and dynamic. Vairocana's immutability represents his transcendental aspect, while his conditioned nature signifies his immanent aspect. This view of an all-pervasive cosmic Buddha has been termed "pan-Buddhism," as it posits that everything is the Buddha and the Buddha is omnipresent in all things.

It is important to note that Fazang's Vairocana is not a monotheistic God, nor does he possess the functions of a creator, judge, or governing father. However, some scholars, like Weiyu Lin, observe that Fazang's conception of Vairocana, being "omnipresent, omnipotent and identical to the universe itself," shares resemblances with certain forms of theism. Despite this, Lin also argues that Fazang's metaphysics of emptiness and interdependence prevents any reification of Vairocana into a monotheistic God.

According to Fazang, Vairocana is the author of the Avatamsaka Sutra, which is taught through all of Vairocana's "ten bodies." This "ten bodies" theory is Fazang's primary Buddha body doctrine, distinct from the Mahayana three bodies theory. The ten bodies are: All-Beings Body, Lands Body, Karma Body, Śrāvakas Body, Pratyekabuddha Body, Bodhisattvas Body, Tathāgatas Body, Jñānakāya Body, Dharmakāya Body, and the Space Body. The number ten symbolizes perfection and infinitude. Fazang asserted that the ten bodies encompass the "three worlds" and are thus equivalent to all phenomena in the universe. For Fazang, the Buddha pervades and is included in all dharmas, encompassing all beings and inanimate phenomena. He also stated that "whatever body in the Ten Bodies is brought up, all the other nine bodies would also be included," meaning each body simultaneously includes all others and is, in turn, included in all of them, demonstrating an "interpenetrating" (xiangru) and "mutually inclusive" (xiangshe) relationship.

5.7. The Path to Awakening and the Nature of Time

Fazang's understanding of the Buddhist path to awakening is deeply informed by his metaphysics of interfusion and interpenetration. He believed that "in practicing the virtues, when one is perfected, all are perfected," and that "when one first arouses the thought of enlightenment (bodhicitta) one also becomes perfectly enlightened." This implies a model of sudden and non-dual awakening, where full awakening is present as soon as bodhicitta arises. Since any phenomenon contains and is interfused with the entire universe, any element of the Buddhist path inherently contains the entire path, including its ultimate fruit, buddhahood.

This principle extends even to temporally distant events, such as a sentient being's current practice and their eventual Buddhahood aeons later. For Fazang, time itself is empty, and all moments-past, present, and future-are interfused with each other. Any segment of time is interconnected with and dependent on all other moments. Fazang wrote: "Because an instant has no essence, it penetrates the eternal, and because the lengthy epochs have no essence, they are fully contained in a single instant...therefore, in an instant of thought all elements of the three periods of time - past, present, and future-are fully revealed." This suggests that not only does the end depend on the beginning, but the beginning also depends on the end. Thus, while Buddhahood depends on the first thought aimed at awakening (bodhicitta) and the initial attainment of faith, the initial stages of practice also depend on the future Buddhahood. Fazang appears to reject linear causation, supporting a form of retrocausality, stating, "beginning and end Interpenetrate. On each stage, one is thus both a Bodhisattva and a Buddha."

Furthermore, due to emptiness and interpenetration, all stages of the bodhisattva path contain each other. Fazang's understanding of the path to Buddhahood is based on the Avatamsaka Sutra's 52 stages (bhumi) model, which begins with the ten stages of faith (shixin 十信^Chinese), followed by the ten abodes (shizhu 十住^Chinese), ten practices (shixing 十行^Chinese), ten dedications of merit (shihuixiang 十迴向^Chinese), ten grounds (shidi 十地^Chinese), virtual enlightenment (dengjue 等覺^Chinese), and marvellous enlightenment (miaojue 妙覺^Chinese). However, Fazang did not interpret this process linearly; instead, he taught that each of these stages and practices are interfused with each other and with Buddhahood itself, much like a rafter's identity is dependent on the entire building. He asserted, "If one stage is acquired, all stages are acquired." Fazang termed this "superior progress," which entails "the acquisition of all stages as well as the stage of Buddhahood" as soon as one reaches "the perfection of faith."

According to Imre Hamar, Fazang was the first to argue that "enlightenment at the stage of faith" (xinman cheng fo 信滿成佛^Chinese) was a unique doctrine of the distinct teaching of the One Vehicle. Fazang believed that "all practices are born from resolute faith." Therefore, at the initial stages of the path, after developing faith and bodhicitta, a bodhisattva already has access to the limitless merit of all other stages, as all stages are mutually interfused. For Fazang, the initial arising of bodhicitta also marks the stage of irreversibility, assuring one's future Buddhahood. However, this does not negate the necessity of gradual practices through the bodhisattva stages. Fazang maintained that bodhisattvas, even after reaching initial faith, must still traverse the remaining stages because all stages retain their particularity even while being wholly interfused, and because buddha-nature must be nurtured through training on the bodhisattva stages.