False Dmitry I

2.1. Origin and Claims

False Dmitry I entered history around 1600, asserting himself as Dmitry Ivanovich, the youngest son of Ivan the Terrible. The real Dmitry Ivanovich was believed to have died in Uglich in 1591 at the age of eight. False Dmitry's narrative was that his mother, Maria Nagaya, Ivan the Terrible's widow, had anticipated an assassination attempt ordered by Boris Godunov. According to his story, she helped him escape to a monastery within the Tsardom of Russia, and the assassins killed a substitute in his place. He further claimed that after the doctor who hid him died, he fled to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth when Boris Godunov ordered his seizure. Rumors also circulated that he was an illegitimate son of the Polish king, Stefan Batory, who reigned from 1575 to 1586. This tale suggested he once blurted out this identity after being slapped by a violent master. Despite the fantastical nature of these claims, many were willing to believe them, especially those disaffected with Boris Godunov's rule.

2.2. Monkhood and Exile

Prior to his emergence as a pretender, False Dmitry I was known as Grigory Otrepyev (Григорий Отрепьев^Russian), a monk. He was described as having made a positive impression on Patriarch Job of Moscow with his learning and assurance. However, his life as a monk was short-lived; he reportedly could not endure monastic life and left the monastery. As rumors of Dmitry's return began to spread, Tsar Boris Godunov ordered Grigory's arrest and questioning. Grigory managed to flee, first to Prince Constantine Ostrogski at Ostroh, located in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, thereby escaping Russian authorities.

2.3. Activities in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

After his initial flight, Grigory Otrepyev entered the service of the Wiśniowiecki family, a Polonized Ruthenian noble family. Princes Adam and Michał Wiśniowiecki were particularly interested in his claims, seeing in them an opportunity to exploit the political rancor in Moscow and intervene in Russian affairs. False Dmitry I displayed aristocratic skills such as horsemanship and literacy, and was fluent in Russian, Polish, and French, which lent credibility to his claims among some Polish nobles. He even worked briefly as a teacher before entering the service of the Wiśniowieckis. Whether or not his tale was accurate, the Wiśniowiecki brothers, along with Samuel Tyszkiewicz, Jan Sapieha, Roman Różyński, and several other Polish noblemen, agreed to support his claim against Boris Godunov.

2.4. Securing Polish Support and Promises

In March 1604, False Dmitry I visited the court of Sigismund III Vasa in Kraków. The Polish king offered provisional support but did not promise direct military aid for his bid for the Muscovite throne. To further attract powerful allies, Dmitry publicly converted to Roman Catholicism on April 17, 1604. This strategic move successfully garnered the support of the Jesuits and convinced the papal nuncio, Claudio Rangoni, to back his claim. While at court, Dmitry met Marina Mniszech, the daughter of the influential Polish nobleman Jerzy Mniszech. Dmitry and Marina fell in love, and when he asked for her hand in marriage, Jerzy Mniszech promised it in return for significant territorial concessions. False Dmitry I pledged to grant the Mniszech family full rights to the Russian towns of Pskov, Novgorod, Smolensk, and Novhorod-Siverskyi upon his ascension to the Russian throne. These promises highlighted his willingness to cede Russian territory and influence to his Polish backers, a factor that would later fuel Russian resentment.

3.1. Military Campaign into Russia

Upon hearing of Dmitry's Polish support, Boris Godunov attempted to counter his claims by spreading word that the young man was merely a runaway monk named Grigory Otrepyev. However, Godunov's efforts to discredit Dmitry often backfired, as Dmitry's loyalists spread counter-rumors, and many Russian boyars, eager to avoid paying taxes to Boris, pledged allegiance to the pretender. In June 1604, False Dmitry I, having secured the full support of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, formed a small army. This force, initially comprising approximately 3,500 soldiers from various private Polish and Lithuanian forces, advanced into Russia. Along the march to Moscow, many of Boris Godunov's enemies, including southern Cossacks, joined Dmitry's army. These combined forces engaged reluctant Russian soldiers in two battles. They won the first, capturing Chernihiv, Putivl, Sevsk, and Kursk. However, they suffered a significant defeat in the second battle, leaving their cause on the brink of collapse.

3.2. Death of Boris Godunov and Shift in Power

The turning point for False Dmitry I came with the sudden death of Boris Godunov on April 13, 1605. The unpopular tsar's demise removed the last major impediment to Dmitry's advance. Victorious Russian troops, previously fighting against him, began to defect to his side, and others swelled the ranks of his Polish and Cossack forces as they continued their march. On June 1, 1605, disaffected boyars in Moscow staged a palace coup. They imprisoned the newly crowned Tsar Feodor II, Boris Godunov's son, and his mother, Maria Skuratova-Belskaya, who were subsequently executed. This swift overthrow of the legitimate heir cleared the path for False Dmitry I.

3.3. Entry into Moscow and Coronation

On June 20, 1605, False Dmitry I made a triumphal entry into Moscow, accompanied by an estimated 8,000 Cossacks and Poles. The Russian populace, disillusioned with the Godunov dynasty and swayed by the narrative of the "returned" tsarevich, largely welcomed him. On July 21, 1605, he was crowned Tsar by a new Muscovite Patriarch of his own choosing, the Greek Ignatius of Moscow. To further legitimize his claim, False Dmitry I visited the convent of Maria Nagaya, the widow of Ivan the Terrible and mother of the real Dmitry. She accepted him as her son and "confirmed" his story, a crucial endorsement that solidified his position in the eyes of many Russians.

4.1. Consolidation of Power and Early Policies

Upon ascending the throne, False Dmitry I immediately moved to solidify his rule. He visited the Cathedral of the Archangel, the tomb of Ivan the Terrible, and the convent of his supposed mother, Maria Nagaya, who publicly accepted him as her son, lending crucial legitimacy to his claim. The Godunov family, including the recently overthrown Tsar Feodor II and his mother, were killed. However, Tsar Boris's daughter, Xenia Borisovna, was spared but reportedly raped by Dmitry and kept as a concubine for five months. In a move to gain support from the Russian nobility, many noble families who had been exiled by Tsar Boris Godunov-such as the Shuiskys, Golitsins, and Romanovs-were pardoned and allowed to return to Moscow. Feodor Romanov, who would later become the patriarch and sire of the future imperial dynasty, was appointed as metropolitan of Rostov. In contrast, the old patriarch Job, who had not recognized the new tsar, was sent into exile.

4.2. Domestic Reforms and Social Measures

False Dmitry I planned to introduce a series of political and economic reforms aimed at easing the conditions of the peasantry. Notably, he restored Yuri's Day, a traditional day when serfs were allowed to change their allegiance to another lord. This measure was intended to alleviate some of the burdens on the peasantry, though its full impact was limited by his short reign. His court also saw the rise of figures like 18-year-old Prince Ivan Khvorostinin, whom historians consider one of Russia's first Westernizers, indicating Dmitry's interest in modernizing aspects of Russian society.

4.3. Foreign Policy and Religious Stance

In foreign policy, False Dmitry I actively sought alliances with his primary sponsor, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and with the Papal States. He harbored ambitions for a war against the Ottoman Empire, even ordering the mass production of firearms in preparation for such a conflict. In his correspondence, he referred to himself as "Emperor of Russia" a century before Tsar Peter I officially adopted the title, though this was not recognized at the time. His public image was also notable; royal depictions featured him clean-shaven with slicked-back dark hair, an unusual appearance for a Russian tsar of that era. His openness to Catholicism and his willingness to allow foreigners into Russia, particularly Poles, were significant aspects of his reign, but also sources of growing resentment among the conservative Russian populace and the Orthodox Church.

4.4. Marriage to Marina Mniszech and Religious Controversy

On May 8, 1606, False Dmitry I married Marina Mniszech in Moscow. Marina was a Catholic, and this marriage sparked considerable religious controversy. The customary practice for a Russian Tsar marrying a woman of another faith was for her to convert to Eastern Orthodox Christianity. However, rumors circulated that Dmitry had secured the support of Polish King Sigismund III Vasa and Pope Paul V by promising to reunite the Russian Orthodox Church and the Holy See. Consequently, it was claimed that Tsarina Marina did not convert to the Orthodox faith. This perceived deviation from tradition deeply angered the Russian Orthodox Church, the boyars, and the general population, who viewed it as a betrayal of their faith and national identity.

4.5. Social Unrest and Boyar Opposition

The growing discontent among the boyars and the populace was fueled by several factors. The resentful Prince Vasily Shuisky, a prominent boyar leader, began to plot against the tsar, publicly accusing him of spreading Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism, and even sodomy. These accusations gained significant traction and popular support, especially as Dmitry surrounded himself with foreigners-particularly Poles-who frequently disregarded Russian customs. The conservative Russian society of the time found the behavior of these foreign retainers unacceptable. According to the Russian chronicler Avraamy Palitsyn, Dmitry further enraged many Muscovites by permitting his Catholic and Protestant soldiers, whom the Russian Church regarded as heretics, to pray in Orthodox churches. Shuisky's adherents also spread rumors that Tsar Dmitry was about to order his Polish retainers to lock the city gates and massacre the people of Moscow. Whether these orders were real or not, Palitsyn's chronicle reported them as undeniable fact, further inciting the populace.

5.1. The Moscow Uprising

On the morning of May 17, 1606, just ten days after False Dmitry I's controversial marriage to Marina Mniszech, a massive uprising erupted in Moscow. Large numbers of boyars and commoners, fueled by resentment over his policies, his foreign entourage, and his perceived religious deviations, stormed the Kremlin. The uprising was orchestrated by Prince Vasily Shuisky and his allies, who capitalized on the widespread discontent.

5.2. Assassination

During the chaos of the uprising, False Dmitry I attempted to flee the Kremlin by jumping out of a window. In the fall, he fractured his leg. He then sought refuge in a public bathhouse, attempting to disappear among the common people. However, he was recognized and dragged out by the boyars. Fearing that he might successfully appeal to the crowd and regain support, the boyars quickly killed him. His death was brutal, reflecting the intensity of the hatred he had inspired.

5.3. Post-mortem Treatment and Immediate Consequences

The treatment of False Dmitry I's body after his death was a grim spectacle designed to utterly discredit him and prevent any future claims of his survival. His body was hacked to pieces, publicly displayed in Red Square as a warning, then burned. The ashes were then mixed with gunpowder and fired from a cannon towards Poland, symbolizing his rejection by Russia and his return to the land from which he supposedly came. According to chronicler Avraamy Palitsyn, Dmitry's death triggered a massacre of his supporters, with Palitsyn boasting in his chronicle that "a great amount of heretical blood was spilled on the streets of Moscow." Following his death, Maria Nagaya, who had previously accepted him as her son, formally denied him as the true Dmitry Ivanovich. False Dmitry I's reign had lasted only eleven months before Prince Vasily Shuisky took his place as Tsar. His death, however, did not end the turmoil; two further impostors, False Dmitry II and False Dmitry III, later appeared, with Marina Mniszech even publicly "accepting" False Dmitry II as her fallen husband, prolonging the chaos of the Time of Troubles.

6.1. Criticisms and Accusations

From the moment he emerged, False Dmitry I faced intense scrutiny and accusations regarding his true identity. He was widely believed to be Grigory Otrepyev, a runaway monk, a claim vigorously propagated by Boris Godunov and later by Vasily Shuisky. His conversion to Roman Catholicism and his perceived attempts to introduce Catholic influence into Russia were major points of contention, leading to accusations of spreading Catholicism, Lutheranism, and even sodomy by the boyars. His policies, such as the restoration of Yuri's Day, while seemingly beneficial to peasants, were seen by some as disruptive. Furthermore, the behavior of his foreign retainers, particularly the Poles, who often disregarded Russian customs and engaged in unruly conduct, fueled widespread resentment and contributed to the perception that he was undermining traditional Russian society and the Russian Orthodox Church. His marriage to the Catholic Marina Mniszech and her refusal to convert to Orthodoxy further solidified the view among many that he was a religious deviant and a tool of foreign powers.

6.2. Historical Evaluation

False Dmitry I's reign, though brief, had a significant impact on Russian history and the broader context of the Time of Troubles. Historian Chester S.-L. Dunning noted that he was "the only Tsar ever raised to the throne by means of a military campaign and popular uprisings," highlighting the unique and turbulent nature of his ascension. His rule, however, was ultimately a period of heightened instability. His attempts at reform, while potentially progressive, were overshadowed by the deep-seated suspicion surrounding his identity and his perceived betrayal of Russian Orthodox traditions. The reliance on Polish support and the presence of foreign retainers in Moscow alienated the powerful boyars and the conservative populace, leading to a swift and violent downfall. His assassination and the subsequent desecration of his body underscored the profound rejection of his rule. The events surrounding False Dmitry I's rise and fall further destabilized Russia, paving the way for subsequent impostors and prolonged civil strife, ultimately contributing to the establishment of the Romanov dynasty. His story serves as a critical example of how internal political weaknesses and foreign interference can exacerbate national crises.

7.1. Influence on the Time of Troubles

False Dmitry I's actions and the events surrounding his reign profoundly influenced subsequent developments during the Time of Troubles. His successful, albeit brief, usurpation of the throne demonstrated the vulnerability of the Russian state and the power of popular discontent combined with foreign backing. His death did not bring an end to the chaos but rather intensified it, as the precedent for pretenders had been set. The appearance of False Dmitry II and False Dmitry III in the years that followed directly capitalized on the lingering belief that the true tsarevich might still be alive, and the continued instability created by the first False Dmitry's rule. The Polish intervention in Russia, initially supporting False Dmitry I, escalated into a full-scale Polish-Muscovite War (1605-18), further devastating the country and shaping the course of Russian foreign policy for decades. The memory of his controversial reign and the foreign influence associated with it contributed to a strong nationalistic and anti-foreign sentiment that eventually led to the expulsion of foreign forces and the election of the Romanov dynasty.

7.2. Portrayals in Literature and Art

The dramatic story of False Dmitry I has been a rich source of inspiration for numerous literary works, plays, and operas by prominent artists and writers.

One of the most famous portrayals is in Alexander Pushkin's blank verse drama Boris Godunov. Pushkin's characterization of False Dmitry as a young novice monk who impersonates the Tsarevich, and his decision to humanize him, earned him the disapproval of Emperor Nicholas I of Russia, who initially prevented the play from being published or staged. Pushkin himself noted similarities between Dmitry and Henri IV, describing both as brave, generous, boastful, indifferent to religion (both abjuring their faith for political causes), lovers of pleasure and war, prone to chimerical projects, and victims of conspiracies. However, Pushkin pointedly added that Henri IV did not have a Xenia on his conscience, referring to the alleged rape of Xenia Borisovna. Pushkin had intended to write further plays about the reigns of Dmitry and Vasily Shuisky, as well as the subsequent Time of Troubles, but his plans were cut short by his death in a duel.

Modest Mussorgsky's opera of the same name, Boris Godunov (opera), though based on Pushkin's play, takes a more overtly nationalistic and religious stance, demonizing False Dmitry, the Polish people, and the Roman Catholic Church. In Mussorgsky's version, False Dmitry's engagement to Marina Mniszech is instigated by a Jesuit, who threatens Marina with hellfire until she agrees to seduce the pretender. This contrasts with Pushkin's view that Marina was driven by pathological ambition. The opera's denouement sees the holy fool Nikolai lamenting the pretender's ascent to the throne, proclaiming, "Weep, weep Orthodox soul," and predicting a future of "darkness blacker than night."

The story of False Dmitry I has also been told by Schiller in his play Demetrius (play), by Russian writers Sumarokov and Khomyakov, and in operas by Victorin Joncières (Dimitri (Joncières)) and Antonín Dvořák (Dimitrij (opera)). Rainer Maria Rilke recounts the overthrow of False Dmitry in The Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge, his only longer prose work. Additionally, Harold Lamb fictionalized False Dmitry's demise in his short story "The Wolf Master," where the claimant survives his assassination through trickery and flees east, pursued by a Cossack he had betrayed. More recently, a false Dmitry character appeared in a Doctor Who audio drama from Big Finish Productions, where he is under the control of aliens aiming to conquer Russia with a robot army.