Andorra

3.1. Prehistory

The earliest human presence in the Andorran valleys dates back to around 9,500 BCE at La Balma de la Margineda, an archaeological site found in Sant Julià de Lòria. This site served as a seasonal passing place for hunter-gatherer groups from Ariege and Segre, ideally located for hunting and fishing.

During the Neolithic period, around 6640 BCE, a group of people established a permanent settlement in the Madriu-Perafita-Claror Valley, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in Escaldes-Engordany. The inhabitants of this valley cultivated cereals, raised domestic livestock, and engaged in trade with communities from Ségre and Occitania.

Other significant archaeological sites include the Tombs of Segudet in Ordino and Feixa del Moro in Sant Julià de Lòria, both dated between 4900-4300 BCE, representing the Urnfield culture in Andorra. The settlement model evolved from small hamlets to more complex urban structures during the Bronze Age. Metallurgical items made of iron, ancient coins, and reliquaries have been discovered in ancient sanctuaries scattered throughout the country. The sanctuary of Roc de les Bruixes (Stone of the Witches) in the parish of Canillo is perhaps the most important archaeological complex from this era, providing insights into funeral rituals, ancient scripture, and engraved stone murals.

3.2. Iberian and Roman Andorra

The inhabitants of the Andorran valleys during the 7th to 2nd centuries BCE were traditionally associated with the Iberians, specifically the Iberian tribe known as the Andosins or Andosini (Ἀνδοσίνους_Andosínoi^{Greek, Ancient}). Influenced by Celtic, Aquitanian, Basque, and Iberian languages, the local population developed some of the current toponyms. Early written records about this group date back to the 2nd century BCE, notably by the Greek writer Polybius in his Histories during the Punic Wars.

Significant remains from this period include the Castle of the Roc d'Enclar (part of the early Marca Hispanica), l'Anxiu in Les Escaldes, and Roc de L'Oral in Encamp.

The influence of the Roman Empire in Andorra is recorded from the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE. Areas with the most significant Roman presence include Camp Vermell (Red Field) in Sant Julià de Lòria, and sites in Encamp and at the Roc d'Enclar. The people continued to trade, mainly wine and cereals, with Roman cities such as Urgellet (modern-day La Seu d'Urgell) and across the Segre region via the Roman road Strata Ceretana (also known as Strata Confluetana).

3.3. Visigoths and Carolingians

Following the fall of the Roman Empire, Andorra came under the influence of the Visigothic Kingdom, specifically the Kingdom of Toledo, and the Diocese of Urgell. The Visigoths remained in the valleys for approximately 200 years, during which Christianity spread in the region. When the Muslim Umayyad Caliphate conquered most of the Iberian Peninsula, replacing Visigothic rule, Andorra was sheltered from these invaders by the Franks.

Tradition holds that Charlemagne (Charles the Great) granted a charter to the Andorran people. This was purportedly in return for a contingent of 5,000 soldiers, commanded by Marc Almugaver, who fought against the Moors near Porté-Puymorens in Cerdanya.

Andorra remained part of the Frankish Marca Hispanica, a buffer zone between the Frankish Empire and Muslim territories. Andorra was part of the territory ruled by the Counts of Urgell and eventually by the bishop of the Diocese of Urgell. Another tradition claims that Andorra's autonomy was guaranteed by Charlemagne's son, Louis the Pious, through the Carta de Poblament (a local municipal charter) around 805 CE.

In 988, Count Borrell II of Urgell transferred the Andorran valleys to the Diocese of Urgell in exchange for land in Cerdanya. Since then, the Bishop of Urgell, based in La Seu d'Urgell, has been one of the Co-Princes of Andorra. The first document to mention Andorra as a distinct territory is the Acta de Consagració i Dotació de la Catedral de la Seu d'Urgell (Deed of Consecration and Endowment of the Cathedral of La Seu d'Urgell). Dated 839, this document lists the six traditional parishes of the Andorran valleys, which formed the country's administrative divisions.

3.4. Middle Ages: Paréages and the founding of the Co-Principality

Before 1095, Andorra lacked formal military protection. The Bishop of Urgell, aware that the Count of Urgell wished to reclaim the Andorran valleys, sought help from the Lord of Caboet. In 1095, the Lord of Caboet and the Bishop of Urgell signed an oath declaring their co-sovereignty over Andorra. Arnalda de Caboet, daughter of Arnau of Caboet, married the Viscount of Castellbò. Their daughter, Ermessenda de Castellbò, subsequently married Roger-Bernard II, the Count of Foix. As a result, Roger-Bernard II and Ermessenda shared rule over Andorra with the Bishop of Urgell.

In the 13th century, a military dispute arose between the Bishop of Urgell and the Count of Foix, partly as an aftermath of the Cathar Crusade. This conflict was resolved in 1278 through the mediation of King Peter III of Aragon. The outcome was the signing of the first Paréage, an agreement stipulating that Andorra's sovereignty would be shared between the Count of Foix (whose title would eventually pass to the French head of state) and the Bishop of Urgell in Catalonia. This pivotal agreement established the principality's territory and political framework, laying the foundation for its unique dual sovereignty that has contributed to its long-standing autonomy and peace.


A second paréage was signed in 1288 following a dispute when the Count of Foix ordered the construction of a castle at Roc d'Enclar. This document was ratified by the noble notary Jaume Orig of Puigcerdà and prohibited the construction of military structures within the country.

In 1364, the political organization of Andorra introduced the figure of the syndic (now the speaker and president of the parliament) as the representative of the Andorrans to their co-princes. This enabled the creation of local departments (comuns, quarts, and veïnats). After ratification by Bishop Francesc Tovia and Count John I, the Consell de la Terra, or General Council of the Valleys (Consell General de les Valls), was founded in 1419, making it one of Europe's oldest parliaments. The syndic Andreu d'Alàs and the General Council organized the creation of the Justice Courts (La Cort de Justicia) in 1433 with the co-princes and established tax collection systems like "foc i lloc" (literally "fire and site," a national tax still active). These developments marked significant steps towards self-governance and the institutionalization of Andorran society.

While ecclesiastical works existed before the 9th century (such as Sant Vicenç d'Enclar or Església de Santa Coloma), Andorra developed a distinct Romanesque art style from the 9th through 14th centuries. This is particularly evident in the construction of churches, bridges, religious murals, and statues of the Virgin and Child, with Our Lady of Meritxell being the most prominent. Today, the Romanesque buildings forming part of Andorra's cultural heritage are remarkably well-preserved, with notable examples including Església de Sant Esteve, Sant Joan de Caselles, Església de Sant Miquel d'Engolasters, Sant Martí de la Cortinada, and medieval bridges like Pont de la Margineda and Pont dels Escalls.

The Catalan Pyrenees were an embryonic center for the Catalan language at the end of the 11th century. Andorra was influenced by this language, adopting it locally decades before it spread to the rest of the Crown of Aragon. The local economy during the Middle Ages was based on livestock, agriculture, furs, and weaving. Later, at the end of the 11th century, the first iron foundries began to appear in northern parishes like Ordino. These were highly valued by master artisans who developed the art of forges, an important economic activity in the country from the 15th century onwards.

3.5. 16th to 18th centuries

In 1601, the Tribunal de Corts (High Court of Justice) was established. This was a response to various pressures, including the Huguenot rebellions in France, Inquisition courts extending their influence from Spain, and local witchcraft-related beliefs, all within the broader context of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation. These institutions aimed to maintain social order and religious orthodoxy.

Over time, the co-title to Andorra passed to the kings of Navarre. After Henry III of Navarre became King Henry IV of France, he issued an edict in 1607 that formally established the head of the French state and the Bishop of Urgell as the Co-Princes of Andorra. This political arrangement, solidifying the dual sovereignty, continues to the present day.

During 1617, communal councils formed the sometent (a popular militia or army) to deal with the rise of bandolerisme (brigandage). The Consell de la Terra (General Council) was also defined and structured in terms of its composition, organization, and competences, many of which are current today.

Andorra continued with an economic system similar to that of the 12th-14th centuries, with significant production in metallurgy (using fargues, a system similar to the Farga Catalana). Tobacco was introduced around 1692, and import trade grew. In 1371 and 1448, the co-princes ratified the fair of Andorra la Vella, which became the most important annual national commercial festival.

The country had a unique and experienced guild of weavers, the Confraria de Paraires i Teixidors, in Escaldes-Engordany. Founded in 1604, it utilized the local thermal waters. Society during this period was characterized by a system of prohoms (wealthy families) and casalers (the rest of the population with less economic standing), deriving from traditions like pubilla (heiress) and hereu (heir).

Three centuries after its foundation, in 1702, the Consell de la Terra established its headquarters and the Tribunal de Corts in Casa de la Vall. This manor house, built in 1580, had served as a noble fortress for the Busquets family. Inside the parliament building, the Closet of the Six Keys (Armari de les sis claus) was placed, representing each Andorran parish. This closet housed important documents, including later, the Andorran constitution and other laws.

During both the Reapers' War and the War of the Spanish Succession, the Andorran people, while officially neutral, supported the Catalans, whose rights were reduced under the Nueva Planta decrees of 1716. This period saw a promotion of Catalan writings in Andorra, with cultural works such as the Book of Privileges (Llibre de Privilegis de 1674), the Manual Digest (1748) by Antoni Fiter i Rossell, and the Polità andorrà (1763) by Antoni Puig, reflecting an effort to preserve Catalan identity and institutions.

3.6. 19th century: The New Reform and the Andorran Question

After the French Revolution, Napoleon I re-established the Co-Principality in 1809, removing the French medieval title. During the Peninsular War (Guerra Peninsular_{Peninsular War}^Catalan), in 1812-1813, the First French Empire annexed Catalonia and divided the region into four départements, with Andorra becoming part of the district of Puigcerdà. However, in 1814, an imperial decree re-established Andorra's independence and economy.

Throughout this period, Andorra's late medieval institutions and rural culture remained largely unchanged. A significant shift occurred in 1866 with the New Reform (Nova Reforma_{New Reform}^Catalan), led by the syndic Guillem d'Areny-Plandolit. This reform established a Council General of 24 members elected by suffrage limited to heads of families, replacing the aristocratic oligarchy that had previously ruled the state. The Nova Reforma, ratified by both Co-Princes, laid the groundwork for the future Constitution of Andorra and national symbols like the tricolour flag. It also spurred the development of a new service economy as inhabitants demanded infrastructure such as hotels, spa resorts, roads, and telegraph lines. These reforms marked a crucial step towards greater popular participation in governance and modernization.

The authorities of the Co-Princes banned casinos and betting houses, leading to economic conflict and the Revolution of 1881. Revolutionaries, led by Joan Pla i Calvo and Pere Baró i Mas, assaulted the syndic's house on December 8, 1880, and established a Provisional Revolutionary Council. This council allowed foreign companies to construct casinos and spas. From June 7 to 9, 1881, loyalists from Canillo and Encamp reconquered the parishes of Ordino and La Massana, eventually engaging revolutionary forces in Escaldes-Engordany. The Treaty of the Bridge of Escalls was signed on June 10, leading to the council's replacement and new elections. However, the economic situation worsened as the populace remained divided over the Qüestió d'Andorra_{Andorran Question}^Catalan - a debate concerning the country's sovereignty and modernization, analogous to the Eastern Question in international affairs. Struggles continued with pro-bishop, pro-French, and nationalist factions, fueled by troubles in Canillo in 1882 and 1885. These events highlighted the challenges of balancing traditional structures with modernizing pressures.

Andorra participated in the Catalan Renaixença cultural movement. Between 1882 and 1887, the first academic schools were established where trilingualism (Catalan, Spanish, French) coexisted with Catalan as the official language. Romantic authors from the French Third Republic and Restoration Spain documented the awakening of Andorra's national consciousness. Jacint Verdaguer lived in Ordino during the 1880s, where he wrote and shared Renaixença-related works with writer and photographer Joaquim de Riba. In 1848, Fromental Halévy's opera Le val d'Andorre premiered to great success in Europe, depicting the national consciousness of the valleys within a romantic work set during the Peninsular War, further contributing to Andorra's cultural identity on the European stage.

3.7. 20th and 21st centuries: Modernisation and Constitutional Andorra

In 1933, France occupied Andorra following social unrest before elections, stemming from the Revolution of 1933 and the FHASA (Forces Hidroelèctriques d'Andorra) strikes. The revolt, led by Joves Andorrans (a labour union group linked to the Spanish CNT and FAI), called for political reforms, universal suffrage for all Andorrans, and defended the rights of local and foreign workers during the construction of FHASA's hydroelectric power station in Encamp. On April 5, 1933, Joves Andorrans seized the Andorran Parliament. These actions were preceded by the arrival of Colonel René-Jules Baulard with 50 gendarmes and the mobilization of 200 local sometent (militia) led by Syndic Francesc Cairat. This period highlighted growing demands for democratic participation and social justice.

On July 6, 1934, adventurer and nobleman Boris Skossyreff, promising freedoms, modernization, and wealth through establishing a tax haven and foreign investments, gained the support of General Council members to proclaim himself sovereign. On July 8, 1934, Boris issued a proclamation in Urgell, declaring himself Boris I, King of Andorra, simultaneously declaring war on the Bishop of Urgell and approving his own constitution on July 10. He was arrested by the Co-Prince and Bishop Justí Guitart i Vilardebó and their authorities on July 20 and ultimately expelled from Spain.

From 1936 until 1940, a French military detachment of Garde Mobile, led by Colonel René-Jules Baulard, was garrisoned in Andorra to secure the principality against disruption from the Spanish Civil War and Francoist Spain, and also to counter rising Republicanism following the 1933 Revolution. During the Spanish Civil War, Andorra welcomed refugees from both sides, many of whom settled permanently, contributing to the subsequent economic boom and Andorra's entry into a capitalist era. Francoist troops reached the Andorran border in the later stages of the war.

During World War II, Andorra remained neutral and served as an important smuggling route between Vichy France and Francoist Spain. Many Andorrans criticized the General Council for its passivity regarding the entry and expulsion of foreigners and refugees, alleged economic crimes, reduction of citizens' rights, and perceived sympathy with Francoism. General Council members justified their actions as necessary for Andorra's survival and sovereignty. Despite these controversies, Andorra was relatively unscathed by the World Wars and the Spanish Civil War. Certain resistance groups formed to help victims of oppression in Nazi-occupied countries, while participating in smuggling to help Andorra survive. The Hostal Palanques Evasion Network Command, in contact with British MI6, helped nearly 400 fugitives, including Allied military personnel, between 1941 and 1944, despite struggles with pro-Axis informers and Gestapo agents.

The capital city hosted a black market for propaganda, culture, and art unfavorable to totalitarian regimes, centered in places like the Hotel Mirador and the Casino Hotel, which also served as meeting places for Free French forces and routes for escorting downed Allied pilots. After the war, film societies emerged, importing movies, music, and books censored in Franco's Spain, becoming an anti-censorship attraction. The Andorran Group (Agrupament Andorrà), an anti-fascist organization linked to Occitanie's French Resistance, accused the French representative (veguer) of collaboration with Nazism.

Andorra's shift to a capitalist economy centered on mass tourism and its tax-exempt status. Early steps towards this boom began in the 1930s with FHASA's construction and the establishment of professional banking with Banc Agrícol (1930) and Crèdit Andorrà (1949), followed by Banca Mora (1952), Banca Cassany (1958), and SOBANCA (1960). Skiing and shopping became major tourist attractions, with ski resorts and cultural entities inaugurated in the late 1930s. In April 1968, a social health insurance system (CASS) was created, improving social welfare.

The official visit of French Co-Prince Charles de Gaulle in 1967 and 1969 signaled approval for Andorra's economic boom and national demands within the framework of human rights and international openness. Andorra experienced an era known as the "Andorran dream," similar to the American Dream, alongside the Trente Glorieuses. Mass culture took root, and the country underwent radical economic and cultural changes. Ràdio Andorra became a top European music radio station, promoting various music genres and hosting prominent guests. During this period, Andorra achieved a GDP per capita and life expectancy higher than many standard economies.

Its relative isolation meant Andorra had few ties beyond France, Spain, and Portugal. However, a thriving tourist industry and developments in transport and communications ended this isolation. Since 1976, calls for reforming Andorran institutions grew due to anachronisms in sovereignty, human rights, power balances, and the need to adapt legislation. In 1982, a separation of powers occurred with the institution of the Govern d'Andorra (Executive Council), led by the first prime minister, Òscar Ribas Reig, with the co-princes' approval. In 1989, Andorra signed an agreement with the European Economic Community to regularize trade relations.

Its political system was thoroughly modernized in 1993. Following the Andorran constitutional referendum, the Constitution of Andorra was drafted by the co-princes and the General Council and approved on March 14 by 74.2% of voters, with a 76% turnout. This constitution transformed Andorra into a parliamentary democracy, enshrining popular sovereignty, separating powers, and guaranteeing fundamental rights and freedoms, a major milestone for democratic development and social progress. The first elections under the new constitution were held later that year. The same year, Andorra became a member of the United Nations and the Council of Europe, signifying its full integration into the international community and commitment to international standards of democracy and human rights.

Andorra formalized diplomatic relations with the United States in 1996. First General Syndic Marc Forné Molné addressed the UN General Assembly in Catalan to advocate for UN reform and later defended Andorra's linguistic rights and economy at the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe. In 2006, a monetary agreement with the European Union was formalized, allowing Andorra to use the euro officially and mint its own euro coins. These developments reflect Andorra's evolution into a modern, democratic state actively participating in global affairs.

4.1. Co-Princes

The Co-Princes are jointly the head of state. The two Co-Princes are the Bishop of Urgell (currently Joan Enric Vives i Sicília) and the President of France (currently Emmanuel Macron). This unique diarchy makes the President of France, in his capacity as Prince of Andorra, an elected monarch, although he is not elected by a popular vote of the Andorran people. The Co-Princes' powers are largely ceremonial as defined by the 1993 Constitution, but they retain significance as guarantors of Andorra's sovereignty and stability. They approve and enact laws passed by the General Council, can call for referendums or elections under specific circumstances, and represent Andorra at the highest level in international relations. Their historical role has evolved from feudal lords to constitutional monarchs, symbolizing Andorra's long path to democratic self-governance.

4.2. Government

The Govern d'Andorra is the executive branch. It is headed by the Prime Minister (Cap de Govern_{Head of Government}^Catalan), who is elected by the General Council and formally appointed by the Co-Princes. The Prime Minister appoints ministers to form the cabinet. The government is responsible for implementing laws, managing public administration, conducting foreign policy, and preparing the national budget. Its actions are accountable to the General Council, reflecting the principles of a parliamentary democracy. The establishment of a distinct executive branch in 1982, and its further definition under the 1993 Constitution, was a key step in Andorra's democratic development, separating powers and enhancing governmental accountability.

4.3. Parliament (General Council)

The Parliament of Andorra is known as the General Council (Consell General de les Valls_{General Council of the Valleys}^Catalan). It is a unicameral legislature consisting of 28 councillors (consellers_councillors^Catalan). Councillors serve for four-year terms, and elections are held between the 30th and 40th days following the dissolution of the previous Council. Half of the councillors (14) are elected in equal numbers by each of the seven administrative parishes (two per parish), and the other half (14) are elected in a single national constituency through a system of proportional representation. Voters cast two votes: one for a party list for the parish councillors and one for a party list for the national councillors.

Fifteen days after the election, the councillors hold their inauguration. During this session, the General Syndic (Síndic General_{General Syndic}^Catalan), who is the head (speaker) of the General Council, and the Subsyndic General (Subsíndic General_{Deputy General Syndic}^Catalan), his assistant, are elected. Eight days later, the Council convenes once more to elect the Prime Minister from among the councillors. Candidates for Prime Minister can be proposed by a minimum of one-fifth of the councillors. The Council then elects the candidate with an absolute majority of votes.

The General Council is responsible for proposing and passing laws, approving the annual budget of the principality, and overseeing the actions of the government. Bills may be presented to the Council as Private Members' Bills by three of the local Parish Councils jointly or by at least one-tenth of the citizens of Andorra, demonstrating a mechanism for popular legislative initiative. The government must submit the proposed budget for parliamentary approval at least two months before the previous budget expires. If the budget is not approved by the first day of the next year, the previous budget is extended until a new one is approved. Once any bill is approved, the General Syndic is responsible for presenting it to the Co-Princes for their signature and enactment.

The Prime Minister may request the Co-Princes to dissolve the Council and order new elections if dissatisfied with its functioning. Conversely, the councillors have the power to remove the Prime Minister from office through a motion of censure approved by at least one-fifth of the councillors and subsequently passed by an absolute majority vote. These mechanisms ensure a balance of power and democratic accountability.

6.1. Foreign relations

Since gaining full sovereignty in 1993, Andorra has actively developed its foreign relations. It is a full member of the United Nations (UN), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and the Council of Europe. Andorra maintains diplomatic relations with numerous countries worldwide, with embassies in key locations such as Brussels (covering the EU), Madrid, Paris, New York (UN), and Vienna (OSCE). Its foreign policy prioritizes multilateralism, neutrality, and strong bilateral relationships, particularly with its neighboring countries, France and Spain.

Andorra has a special agreement with the European Union (EU). While not a full EU member, it is part of the EU's customs union for manufactured goods and uses the euro as its official currency, minting its own euro coins since 2014. It continues to negotiate for closer association with the EU to enhance economic integration while preserving its specificities. The country also has observer status at the World Trade Organization (WTO). On October 16, 2020, Andorra became the 190th member of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), particularly significant during the economic challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic. Andorra's diplomatic efforts focus on promoting its interests as a small state, advocating for sustainable development, human rights, and international peace and security.

6.2. Defence and military

Andorra does not have its own standing armed forces. Responsibility for defending the nation rests primarily with France and Spain, as per historical agreements and its constitution. However, in case of emergencies or natural disasters, a traditional alarm system known as the Sometent can be called, requiring all able-bodied men between 21 and 60 of Andorran nationality to serve. This reflects a historical citizen militia tradition. By law, each head of household (usually the eldest able-bodied man) should keep a rifle, though the police will offer a firearm if needed.

Before World War I, Andorra maintained an armed militia of about 600 part-time militiamen. In the modern era, the "army" consists of a very small body of volunteers who undertake ceremonial duties, such as presenting the flag of Andorra at official functions. Their uniforms and weaponry are often handed down through families. The army's role in internal security was largely taken over by the Police Corps of Andorra in 1931. The Sometent was last generally called during the floods of 1982 in the Catalan Pyrenees. Andorra's military budget is strictly from voluntary donations. The country's long history of peace (over 700 years without direct involvement in war) underscores its unique defense posture, reliant on diplomacy and the protection of its neighbors.

6.3. Police Corps

Andorra maintains a small but modern and well-equipped internal police force, the Police Corps of Andorra (Cos de Policia d'Andorra_{Police Corps of Andorra}^Catalan), with around 240 police officers supported by civilian assistants. The principal services provided by the corps are uniformed community policing, criminal detection, border control, and traffic policing. There are also small specialist units, including police dogs, mountain rescue, and a bomb disposal team.

The Grup d'Intervenció Policia d'Andorra_{Group of Intervention Police of Andorra}^Catalan (GIPA) is a small police tactical unit trained in counter-terrorism and hostage recovery tasks. Although it is the closest in style to an active military force, it is part of the Police Corps. As terrorist and hostage situations are rare, GIPA is commonly assigned to prisoner escort duties and, at other times, to routine policing. The Police Corps plays a crucial role in maintaining Andorra's reputation as a safe country with low crime rates, contributing to social stability and the well-being of its residents and visitors.

6.4. Fire brigade

The Andorran Fire Brigade (Cos de Bombers d'Andorra_{Firefighters Corps of Andorra}^Catalan), with its headquarters in Santa Coloma, operates from four modern fire stations and has a staff of around 120 firefighters. The service is equipped with 16 heavy appliances (fire tenders, turntable ladders, and specialist four-wheel drive vehicles), four light support vehicles (cars and vans), and four ambulances.

Historically, the families of the six ancient parishes of Andorra maintained local arrangements to assist each other in fighting fires. The first fire pump purchased by the government was acquired in 1943. Serious fires lasting two days in December 1959 led to calls for a permanent fire service, and the Andorran Fire Brigade was formed on April 21, 1961. The fire service maintains full-time cover with five fire crews on duty at any time: two at the brigade's headquarters in Santa Coloma, and one crew at each of the other three fire stations. They are essential for emergency response and public safety in Andorra's mountainous terrain, particularly dealing with forest fires and rescue operations.

6.5. Andorra in the Council of Europe

Andorra became a member of the Council of Europe on November 10, 1994, a significant step in its integration into European democratic structures and its commitment to upholding human rights, democracy, and the rule of law. Through its membership, Andorra participates in various Council of Europe mechanisms and conventions:

• Prevention of torture: Andorra is subject to inspections by the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT) in detention facilities, including juvenile centers, immigration detention sites, police stations, and psychiatric hospitals, ensuring humane treatment.
• Fight against racism: The European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) monitors Andorra and provides advice to combat racism and intolerance effectively.
• Protection of social rights: Andorra's adherence to the European Social Charter is overseen by the European Committee of Social Rights, which guarantees social and economic human rights for its population.
• Protection of minorities: While Andorra has not signed the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, its diverse population and language policies are areas of ongoing relevance.
• Anti-corruption: Andorra is evaluated by the Group of States against Corruption (GRECO) to improve national capacities against corruption and promote transparency.
• Countering money laundering and terrorism financing: The MONEYVAL Committee reviews Andorra's measures, and it is monitored under COP198 to ensure compliance with international standards.
• Democracy through law: The Venice Commission provides advisory support to Andorra, assisting in aligning its constitutional and legal frameworks with European democratic standards.
• Combating human trafficking: The Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (GRETA) monitors Andorra's efforts through regular evaluation reports.
• Enhancing the justice system: Assessments by the European Commission for the Efficiency of Justice (CEPEJ) and the Consultative Council of European Prosecutors (CCPE) aim to improve judicial efficiency and standards.
• Cultural contributions: In 1994, Andorra donated the painting "Incles Valley, Andorra" by Francesc Galobardes to the Council's art collection, symbolizing its commitment to human rights and cultural heritage.

Andorra's representation in the Council includes its Minister for Foreign Affairs in the Committee of Ministers, a delegation in the Parliamentary Assembly, and participation in the Congress of Local and Regional Authorities. An Andorran judge serves at the European Court of Human Rights. The Commissioner for Human Rights conducts visits to monitor the human rights situation and engage in dialogue with national authorities and civil society. Andorra has ratified several Council of Europe treaties, reinforcing its commitment to the organization's principles. For 2025, Andorra's contribution to the Council of Europe's budget of 655.70 M EUR is 368.84 K EUR.

7.1. Parishes

Andorra is divided into seven administrative divisions known as parishes (parròquies_parishes^Catalan; singular: parròquia_parish^Catalan). These parishes form the primary local government units within the country. Each parish has its own elected council (comú_commune^Catalan) responsible for local affairs. The seven parishes are:

• Andorra la Vella (the capital)
• Canillo
• Encamp
• Escaldes-Engordany (formed in 1978, previously part of Andorra la Vella)
• La Massana
• Ordino
• Sant Julià de Lòria

These parishes not only serve administrative functions but also represent distinct historical communities within Andorra, each with its own traditions and local character. Their role in the General Council elections, where each parish elects an equal number of representatives, underscores their importance in Andorra's democratic structure.

7.2. Physical geography

Due to its location in the eastern Pyrenees mountain range, Andorra's landscape is predominantly characterized by rugged mountains. The highest peak is Coma Pedrosa, reaching an elevation of 9.7 K ft ^{(2.95 K m)}. The average elevation of Andorra is 6.6 K ft ^{(2.00 K m)}, making it one of the highest countries in Europe. The mountainous terrain is dissected by three narrow valleys arranged in a Y-shape. These valleys converge as the main stream, the Gran Valira river, flows southwards, eventually leaving the country for Spain. Andorra's lowest point, at 2756 ft ^{(840 m)}, is where the Gran Valira exits the country. The total land area of Andorra is 468 0. This mountainous topography significantly influences its climate, land use, and communication routes, and is central to its tourism industry, particularly for skiing and hiking.

7.3. Environment

Phytogeographically, Andorra belongs to the Atlantic European province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Andorra is part of the Pyrenees conifer and mixed forests ecoregion. Andorra's natural ecosystems are diverse, shaped by its mountainous terrain and varied microclimates.

In 2020, forest cover was around 34% of the total land area, equivalent to 40 K acre ^{(16.00 K ha)} of forest, a figure that has remained unchanged since 1990. All of this forest area is naturally regenerating, with no reported planted forests. None of the naturally regenerating forest was reported as primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity), and a negligible percentage of the forest area was found within protected areas, although this may refer to strict classifications as the Madriu-Perafita-Claror Valley itself covers about 9% of Andorra's territory and is a protected cultural landscape. Andorra had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.45/10, ranking it 127th globally out of 172 countries.

The entire country has been recognized as a single Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International. This designation is due to its importance for forest and mountain birds, supporting populations of red-billed choughs, citril finches, and rock buntings.

Environmental challenges include managing the impact of tourism, urban development in the valleys, and waste disposal. Conservation efforts focus on protecting biodiversity, sustainable land management, and promoting environmental awareness. The Madriu-Perafita-Claror Valley stands as a testament to Andorra's efforts to balance human activity with environmental preservation, reflecting a growing commitment to sustainable practices critical for its future.

7.4. Climate

Andorra's climate is primarily alpine and continental, with some oceanic climate influences, largely depending on altitude. Its high elevation generally means more snow in winter and cooler summers compared to surrounding lowland regions. The diversity of its landscape, the different orientations of its valleys, and the irregular relief typical of mountainous regions contribute to a variety of microclimates. The significant altitude differences between its lowest and highest points, combined with influences from the Mediterranean (though less direct), shape the climate of the Andorran Pyrenees.

Precipitation patterns are characterized by convective and often abundant rains during spring and summer, which can extend into autumn (May, June, and August are typically the rainiest months). Winters are generally less rainy at lower altitudes, but the highlands receive substantial snowfall due to the influence of fronts from the Atlantic.

The temperature regime is broadly characterized by temperate summers and long, cold winters, consistent with its mountainous character. The capital, Andorra la Vella, at an elevation of 3.5 K ft ^{(1.07 K m)}, experiences average daily temperatures ranging from around 35.6 °F ^{(2 °C)} in January to 66.2 °F ^{(19 °C)} in July. Average high temperatures in Andorra la Vella range from 44.42 °F ^{(6.9 °C)} in January to 79.16 °F ^{(26.2 °C)} in July, while average lows range from 27.5 °F ^{(-2.5 °C)} in January to 52.52 °F ^{(11.4 °C)} in July and August. Record high temperatures have reached 102.2 °F ^{(39 °C)} in July, and record lows have fallen to 3.1999999999999993 °F ^{(-16 °C)} in February. Average annual precipitation is 32 in ^{(812.3 mm)}, with monthly averages ranging from 1.5 in ^{(37.9 mm)} in February to 3.5 in ^{(89.8 mm)} in May.

As a small mountainous country, Andorra is highly vulnerable to climate change. Temperatures in its high-altitude regions have risen by about 0.3 °F ^{(0.17 °C)} per decade, while annual rainfall has decreased by 1.9 in ^{(49 mm)}. These shifts are impacting water resources and snow cover, which are crucial for Andorra's tourism-dependent economy. The number of days with sufficient snow for skiing is declining, and the snow line is retreating to higher altitudes.

Although its national greenhouse gas emissions are among the lowest in the world (534.00 K t emitted in 2023), Andorra has a strong climate change mitigation strategy, focusing on renewable energy and energy efficiency. In its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC), Andorra has committed to reducing its emissions by 55% by 2030 and achieving carbon neutrality by 2050. However, the adaptation part of its strategy is still in its early stages and may be difficult and costly to implement. Given the country's reliance on tourism, accelerating adaptation measures is essential for building a more resilient and sustainable economy.

8.1. Tourism

Tourism is the cornerstone of Andorra's economy, accounting for roughly 80% of its GDP. The country attracts an estimated 8 million visitors annually, drawn by its duty-free shopping status and its extensive summer and winter resorts. The ski resorts, offering over 109 mile ^{(175 km)} of ski slopes in areas like Grandvalira and Vallnord, are a primary attraction. This sector generated an estimated 340.00 M EUR per year and sustained 2,000 direct and 10,000 indirect jobs as of 2007. Beyond skiing, Andorra offers outdoor activities such as hiking, mountain biking, and access to natural parks like the Madriu-Perafita-Claror Valley. Thermal spas, particularly in Escaldes-Engordany, also contribute to its appeal. The reliance on tourism necessitates continuous investment in infrastructure and a focus on sustainable practices to preserve the natural environment that underpins this vital industry, especially in the face of climate change affecting snow conditions. Efforts are being made to diversify tourism offerings to attract visitors year-round.

8.2. Banking and finance

The banking and financial services sector is another significant contributor to Andorra's economy, accounting for approximately 19% of GDP. Historically, Andorra was known as a tax haven, which attracted foreign capital and contributed to the sector's growth. However, in response to international pressure for greater transparency and to combat money laundering and tax evasion, Andorra has undertaken substantial reforms in recent decades. These include signing tax information exchange agreements, eliminating banking secrecy for tax purposes, and introducing direct taxation.

The Andorran financial system comprised five banking groups as of the mid-2010s, though mergers have reduced this to three active banking groups by 2022. Additionally, there are specialized credit entities, investment undertaking management entities, asset management companies, and insurance companies. The transformation of its banking sector aims to align Andorra with international financial regulations, such as those set by the OECD and the European Union. This shift, while challenging, is crucial for maintaining the long-term stability and reputation of Andorra's financial industry and ensuring its sustainable integration into the global economy.

8.3. Agriculture and other sectors

Agricultural production in Andorra is limited due to its mountainous terrain and the small percentage of arable land (only about 1.7% of the total land area). Consequently, most food has to be imported. Historically, agriculture and livestock rearing were the mainstays of the Andorran economy. Today, some tobacco is still grown locally, which was once a more significant crop. The principal livestock activity is domestic sheep raising.

Manufacturing output is also small-scale, consisting mainly of cigarettes, cigars, and furniture. Other minor economic activities exist, but they do not contribute significantly to the national GDP compared to tourism and finance. Andorra's natural resources include hydroelectric power, mineral water, timber, iron ore, and lead. Hydroelectric power is a valuable renewable energy source for the country. Efforts to diversify the economy beyond tourism and finance are ongoing, but the scale of these other sectors remains modest. The focus is on developing niche markets and services that can leverage Andorra's unique characteristics while promoting sustainable economic practices.

8.4. Taxation and EU relations

Andorra's taxation system has undergone significant transformation. Historically, it was a tax haven with no direct taxes, relying on import tariffs. However, to align with international standards and address concerns from the European Union and other bodies, Andorra introduced direct taxation. A business tax of 10% was introduced on January 1, 2012, followed by a sales tax (IGI - Impost General Indirecte_{General Indirect Tax}^Catalan) of 4.5% (standard rate) a year later. Personal income tax was introduced in 2016. These reforms have aimed to increase fiscal transparency and fairness, moving Andorra away from its tax haven status. Despite these changes, Andorra maintains a competitive tax environment. For certain goods, it retains a duty-free or low-duty status, which continues to attract shoppers.

Andorra is not a member of the European Union but enjoys a special relationship with it. It is treated as an EU member for trade in manufactured goods (no tariffs) but as a non-EU member for agricultural products. Andorra uses the euro as its de facto currency and, following a monetary agreement with the EU, began issuing its own euro coins in 2014. The country is currently negotiating an Association Agreement with the EU, aiming for deeper integration into the EU's internal market, which could further impact its economic structure and fiscal policies, potentially leading to greater economic stability and opportunities but also requiring further alignment with EU regulations. Andorra historically had one of the world's lowest unemployment rates; in 2023, it stood at 1.5%.

9.1. Population

As of 2020, the population of Andorra was estimated at approximately 77,543. The population has grown significantly from around 5,000 in 1900, largely due to immigration. Andorrans are a Romance ethnic group of originally Catalan descent.

A distinctive feature of Andorra's demographics is that a large proportion of residents are not Andorran citizens. As of 2017, Andorran citizens made up 48.8% of the population. The largest groups of foreign nationals were Spanish (25.1%), Portuguese (12%), and French (4.4%), with other nationalities comprising the remaining 9.7%. This demographic makeup has implications for social integration and political participation, as non-citizens historically have had limited rights, such as the right to vote in national elections or own more than 33% of the capital stock of a privately held company. While reforms have occurred, the path to citizenship can be lengthy, requiring extended residency.

Andorra has one of the highest life expectancies in the world. The population density is relatively high for its small, mountainous territory, with most people living in the main valleys, particularly around the capital. Population growth rates have varied, influenced by economic conditions and immigration policies.

9.2. Languages

According to a 2022 survey by the Government of Andorra on the knowledge and linguistic use of the population, mother tongue speakers were reported as follows: Catalan at 44.1%, Spanish at 40.3%, Portuguese at 13.5%, and French at 10.0%. Other languages accounted for 9.8%. (Note: Percentages may exceed 100% as individuals can report more than one mother tongue or primary language.)

The historic and official language of Andorra is Catalan, a Romance language. The Andorran government actively promotes the use of Catalan through various initiatives, including funding a Commission for Catalan Toponymy (Comissió de Toponímia d'Andorra_{Commission for Catalan Toponymy in Andorra}^Catalan) and providing free Catalan classes to assist immigrants. Andorran television and radio stations broadcast in Catalan.

Due to significant immigration, historical links, and close geographic proximity to Spain and France, other languages are commonly spoken. Spanish is widely understood and spoken, followed by Portuguese (due to a large Portuguese immigrant community) and French. Most Andorran residents can speak one or more of these languages in addition to Catalan. English is less commonly spoken among the general population but is understood to varying degrees in major tourist resorts and among younger generations.

Andorra is one of only four European countries (along with France, Monaco, and Turkey) that have never signed the Council of Europe's Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. Government policies aim to ensure the primacy of Catalan as the language of public life, education, and administration, while acknowledging the multilingual reality of the country.

9.3. Religion

The religious landscape of Andorra is predominantly Roman Catholic. Estimates suggest that around 89.5% of the population identifies as Catholic. Other Christian denominations account for approximately 2.7% of the population, while other religions and unaffiliated individuals make up the remaining 7.8%. The Constitution of Andorra acknowledges a special relationship with the Catholic Church "in accordance with Andorran tradition" and guarantees the Church free and public exercise of its activities and the preservation of these special cooperative relations. The Bishop of Urgell, one of Andorra's Co-Princes, is a Catholic bishop. The patron saint of Andorra is Our Lady of Meritxell.

While Roman Catholicism is dominant, religious freedom is protected by the constitution. There are members of various Protestant denominations (around 2.1%-2.7%), including Anglican and New Apostolic communities. There are also small communities of other faiths, including approximately 2,000 Muslims (mainly from North African immigration), around 100 individuals adhering to the Jewish faith, and small numbers of Hindus and Baháʼís. The remaining population is unaffiliated or belongs to other belief systems. Public religious education in schools is typically Roman Catholic, though parents can opt out.

9.4. Largest cities

Andorra is a small country with a few main urban areas where the majority of its population resides. These are primarily located along the main river valleys. The concept of "city" is relative to its small scale; these are more accurately towns or urbanized parishes.

Andorra la Vella is the capital and largest urban center, serving as the political, economic, and cultural heart of the country. Escaldes-Engordany, immediately adjacent to the capital, is the second-largest urban area and is known for its thermal spas and commercial activity. Encamp and Sant Julià de Lòria are other significant towns, serving as centers for their respective parishes and offering residential and commercial facilities. These urban areas are where most services, employment, and amenities are concentrated.

10.1. School systems

Andorra provides free public education from age four until the end of compulsory schooling at age 16, as guaranteed by the Qualified Education Law of 1993. A distinctive feature of Andorra's education system is the co-existence of three different public schooling systems:

• Andorran system: Uses Catalan as the primary language of instruction and follows a curriculum developed by the Andorran Ministry of Education. About 39% of children attend Andorran schools.
• French system: Uses French as the primary language of instruction and follows the French national curriculum. Teachers are largely paid by France. Approximately 33% of children attend French schools.
• Spanish system: Uses Spanish as the primary language of instruction and follows the Spanish national curriculum. Teachers are mostly paid by Spain. Around 28% of children attend Spanish schools.

Parents have the right to choose which system their children attend. All schools are built and maintained by Andorran authorities. This trilateral system reflects Andorra's unique cultural and historical ties with its neighboring countries and supports the multilingual character of its society. In addition to these public systems, there are also private schools, including those offering international curricula. The education system aims to ensure high literacy rates and prepare students for higher education or vocational training.

10.2. University of Andorra

The Universitat d'Andorra (UdA) is Andorra's state public university and the only university in the country. It was established in 1997, marking a significant step in the development of higher education within the principality. The UdA offers first-level degrees (bachelor's equivalent) in fields such as nursing, computer science, business administration, and educational sciences. It also provides higher professional education courses and postgraduate programs.

The university's main faculties include the College of Health and Education Sciences, the College of Business and Technology, and the College of eLearning and Lifelong Learning. Given Andorra's small size and population, the UdA cannot offer a full range of academic programs comparable to larger universities. Therefore, it also functions as a center for virtual studies, facilitating access to degrees from Spanish and French universities through its Virtual Studies Centre (Centre d'Estudis Virtuals_{Virtual Studies Center}^Catalan). This center runs approximately 20 different academic degrees at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels in diverse fields including tourism, law, Catalan philology, humanities, psychology, political sciences, audiovisual communication, telecommunications engineering, and East Asian studies. It also offers various postgraduate programs and continuing education courses for professionals, catering to the needs of the local workforce and promoting lifelong learning. The University of Andorra plays a vital role in research relevant to Andorra and in training professionals for the country's specific economic and social context.

13.1. Traditions and festivals

Andorra is home to vibrant folk traditions, particularly its dances. The contrapàs and marratxa are notable folk dances that survive, especially in Sant Julià de Lòria. Andorran folk music shares similarities with that of its neighbors but is distinctly Catalan in character, evident in dances like the sardana. Other traditional dances include the contrapàs in Andorra la Vella and Saint Anne's dance in Escaldes-Engordany.

The national holiday is Our Lady of Meritxell Day on September 8th, celebrating Andorra's patron saint. Important festivals and traditions include:

• The Canòlich Gathering in May.
• The Roser d'Ordino in July.
• The Andorra la Vella Fair.
• Sant Jordi Day (St. George's Day).
• The Santa Llúcia Fair.
• The Festivity from La Candelera to Canillo.
• The Carnival of Encamp.
• The singing of caramelles (traditional Easter songs).
• The Festivity of Sant Esteve (St. Stephen's Day).
• The Festa del Poble (Town Festival).

Popular Andorran legends include the legend of Charlemagne, who is said to have founded the country; the White Lady of Auvinyà; the Buner d'Ordino; the legend of Engolasters Lake; and the legend of Our Lady of Meritxell. These traditions and festivals are integral to Andorran cultural life, fostering community spirit and preserving historical heritage. Andorra participated regularly in the Eurovision Song Contest between 2004 and 2009, being the only participating country to present songs in Catalan.

13.2. Cuisine

Andorran gastronomy is largely based on Catalan cuisine, with significant influences from French and Spanish culinary traditions. The cuisine is marked by its mountain valley setting, utilizing local ingredients. Typical Andorran dishes include:

• Quince aioli
• Duck with winter pear
• Roast lamb with nuts
• Pork civet
• Massegada cake
• Escarole with pears
• Duck confit and mushrooms
• Escudella (a hearty Catalan stew, often considered Andorra's national dish)
• Spinach with raisins and pine nuts
• Jelly marmalade
• Stuffed múrgoles (morel mushrooms) with pork
• Dandelion salad
• Andorran river trout

Popular drinks include mulled wine and local beer. Many dishes are common in the mountainous regions of Catalonia, such as trinxat (a potato and cabbage dish), embotits (cured sausages), cooked snails, rice with mushrooms, mountain rice, and mató cheese. The cuisine reflects a tradition of hearty, seasonal food adapted to the high-altitude environment.

13.3. Art and architecture

Andorra possesses a rich heritage of Pre-Romanesque and Romanesque art and architecture, which are among its most significant artistic manifestations. These styles provide insights into the formation of parochial communities, power relations, and national culture. There are around forty Romanesque churches scattered throughout the valleys, characterized by their small size, austere ornamentation, and robust stone construction, often featuring distinctive Lombard-style bell towers. Notable examples include:

• Santa Coloma d'Andorra: One of the oldest churches, with a unique circular bell tower from the 12th century.
• Sant Joan de Caselles in Canillo: A well-preserved 11th-12th century church with notable frescoes and a sculpted altarpiece.
• Sant Martí de la Cortinada in Ordino: Features 12th-century Romanesque murals.
• Església de Sant Miquel d'Engolasters: Known for its 12th-century frescoes (copies in situ, originals in MNAC, Barcelona) and scenic location.
• Església de Sant Esteve in Andorra la Vella: The capital's parish church, with Romanesque origins and later Gothic and Baroque additions.

In addition to churches, Romanesque bridges such as Pont de la Margineda and Pont dels Escalls, fortresses, and manor houses like Casa de la Vall (with Gothic elements built upon earlier foundations) are part of Andorra's architectural legacy. This artistic heritage reflects a period of significant cultural development and community consolidation in the Pyrenean valleys.

13.4. World Heritage sites

Andorra is home to sites recognized by UNESCO for their outstanding universal value, highlighting its cultural and natural importance.

• Madriu-Perafita-Claror Valley: This cultural landscape was inscribed as Andorra's first UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2004, with a minor extension in 2006. It covers approximately 9% of Andorra's territory and showcases a microcrosm of how people have harvested the resources of the high Pyrenees over millennia. The valley demonstrates a sustainable way of life in a mountain environment, with evidence of communal land management, traditional agriculture, pastoralism, iron smelting, and a network of summer settlements, paths, and stone-built structures. It is recognized for being an exceptional illustration of a way of life that is representative of the culture of the Pyrenees, reflecting a harmonious interaction between humans and nature.

• Summer solstice fire festivals in the Pyrenees: In 2015, these festivals were inscribed on the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. This is a transnational inscription shared with France and Spain. In Andorra, these festivals involve communities, particularly in Andorra la Vella, Sant Julià de Lòria, and Escaldes-Engordany, carrying flaming torches (falles_falles^Catalan) down mountainsides to light traditionally constructed beacons. This tradition, passed down through generations, symbolizes fertility, purification, and community cohesion, marking an important moment in the agricultural and social calendar.

These recognitions underscore Andorra's commitment to preserving its unique cultural and natural heritage and sharing it with the world, contributing to global cultural diversity and promoting sustainable heritage management.