1. Early life and background
Étienne de Silhouette's early life was marked by his aristocratic lineage and a rigorous education in finance and economics.
1.1. Birth and family background
Étienne de Silhouette was born in Limoges, France, on July 5, 1709. His father was Chevalier Arnaud de Silhouette, a Bourbon administrator of Basque origin, specifically from Biarritz or known as de Zulueta in Basque.
1.2. Education and early activities
He pursued extensive studies in finance and economics, including a year spent in London where he gained profound insights into the economy of Britain. Beyond his financial studies, Étienne de Silhouette was also an active translator. He translated several notable works into French, including those by Alexander Pope, Henry Bolingbroke, William Warburton's The Alliance between Church and State (1736), which he rendered as Dissertations sur l'Union de la Religion, de la Morale, et de la Politique (1742), and Baltasar Gracián's El político. Notably, his translations of Pope's works were shared with common people. Ironically, his English translations were later used by the political party of the Prince of Condé to criticize him.
2. Career as Controller-General of Finances
Étienne de Silhouette's career as Controller-General of Finances was defined by his appointment during a period of national crisis, his ambitious but unpopular financial policies, and his swift resignation due to intense opposition.
2.1. Appointment and reform objectives
Étienne de Silhouette was appointed Controller-General of Finances on March 4, 1759, a promotion secured with the crucial support of Madame de Pompadour. This position was one of the most extensive administrative roles within the Ancien Régime, though also notoriously unstable. His primary objective was to address France's severe and spiraling financial deficit, a long-standing issue exacerbated by the extravagant spending and external wars of previous reigns, particularly Louis XIV. His mission also included strengthening the nation's finances for the ongoing Seven Years' War against Great Britain.
2.2. Financial policies and initiatives
Silhouette's approach aimed to restore the kingdom's finances, notably by shifting the tax burden towards the wealthy and privileged classes, a method somewhat inspired by the English system. Among his key initiatives, he introduced a significant public loan of 72 million livres, which was generally favored by public opinion over the then-current ferme générale, an outsourced tax collection system. He also took direct action to curtail Royal household expenditure and revised state pensions. To foster economic growth and a unified French market, he promoted free trade by reducing some older taxes while simultaneously establishing new ones.
Recognizing the dire financial situation, he projected a bleak budget for 1760, anticipating an income of only 286 million livres against expenses of 503 million livres, including at least 94 million dedicated to government debt service. In a radical move to address the deficit, he devised the "general subvention," a new tax targeting the rich and privileged classes-the nobility and the church, who were traditionally exempt from taxes in the Ancien Régime. This tax was levied on visible signs of wealth, such as the number of doors and windows, farms, luxury goods, servants, and profits. Additionally, on October 26, 1759, as a stringent war measure, he ordered the melting down of goldware and silverware to raise immediate funds for the state.
2.3. Public and noble reception and resignation
His austerity measures and attempts to tax the privileged classes met with significant opposition from both the nobility and the public. He was heavily criticized by prominent figures like Voltaire, who, while acknowledging the theoretical benefits of Silhouette's proposals, deemed them impractical and unsuitable for the prevailing wartime conditions and the complex French political landscape. The public, perhaps sensing a lack of concrete solutions beyond general frugality, sometimes derided him as an "incompetent minister." Facing mounting pressure and widespread criticism, Étienne de Silhouette's tenure was remarkably short. On November 20, 1759, after serving for only eight months, he resigned from his position and retired to his estate at Bry-sur-Marne.
3. Legacy
Étienne de Silhouette's lasting influence primarily stems from the unexpected cultural association of his name with an art form, rather than his economic policies.
3.1. Origin of the term 'Silhouette'
Étienne de Silhouette's brief but controversial tenure as Controller-General directly led to his name becoming immortalized in the art world. His stringent "penny-pinching" policies, aimed at addressing France's financial woes, fostered a public perception of austerity and frugality. Consequently, the term à la Silhouette was used to describe things deemed cheap, austere, or simplified.
During this period, an increasingly popular art form was the creation of shadow profiles cut from black paper. This method offered a remarkably simple and inexpensive alternative for individuals who could not afford more elaborate and costly forms of portraiture, such as oil paintings or sculptures. Those who viewed this new, inexpensive portraiture as cheap or unadorned began to associate it with Silhouette's policies, thereby attaching his name to the art form. The term "silhouette" continues to be used to describe this art form, which is still practiced today.
3.2. Historical evaluation and irony
Despite the lasting cultural impact of his name through the art of the silhouette, a profound historical irony surrounds Étienne de Silhouette himself: no existing portraits of him, not even a silhouette, are known to survive. While several oil paintings depicting him were created during his lifetime, they were all tragically destroyed during the French Revolution. His brief but impactful time in office, marked by attempts at radical financial reform and the public's mixed reception, ultimately cemented his name in language for reasons far removed from his intended economic legacy.
4. Death
Étienne de Silhouette died on January 20, 1767. Following his death, his nephew and heir, Clément de Laage, took on the responsibility of completing his uncle's ongoing work, bringing a close to the endeavors initiated by Silhouette.