Yokoi Shōnan

1.1. Early Life and Education

Yokoi Shōnan was born on August 13, 1809 (文化6年8月13日_{Bunka 6, 8th month, 13th day}^Japanese), in Uchitsuboi-machi, a town below Kumamoto Castle in Higo Province (present-day Kumamoto Prefecture). He was the second son of Yokoi Tokinao, a Kumamoto Domain samurai with a stipend of 150 koku.

At the age of eight, in 1816 (文化13年_{Bunka 13}^Japanese), Yokoi enrolled in the domain school, Shijukukan. He became a live-in student in 1833 (天保4年_{Tenpō 4}^Japanese), served as a lecture hall attendant in 1836 (天保7年_{Tenpō 7}^Japanese), and was appointed head of the dormitory in 1837 (天保8年_{Tenpō 8}^Japanese). During this time, he, along with Shimotsu Kyuya, proposed a new dormitory system, which was adopted but ultimately failed in its implementation. He found a patron in Nagaoka Koreyoshi, a senior retainer (家老_karō^Japanese). In 1839 (天保10年_{Tenpō 10}^Japanese), following his domain's orders, Yokoi traveled to Edo for further studies. There, he became a disciple of Hayashi Teiu and interacted with prominent scholars such as Sato Issei and Matsuzaki Kodo. He also forged connections with influential figures from across the country, including shogunate official Kawaji Toshiakira and Mito domain samurai Fujita Toko, who were known for their reformist views.

1.2. Early Activities and Philosophical Development

After his return to Kumamoto, Yokoi's early activities focused on scholarly pursuits and the development of his reformist ideas. However, his outspoken nature quickly led to trouble. On December 25, 1839, after a year-end party hosted by Fujita Toko, Yokoi engaged in a drinking brawl with individuals from outside his domain. This transgression led to a strict reprimand, and on February 9, 1840 (天保11年2月9日_{Tenpō 11, 2nd month, 9th day}^Japanese), he was ordered to return home and subjected to 逼塞_hissoku^Japanese, a form of house arrest, for 70 days. During this period of confinement, Yokoi deeply immersed himself in the study of Neo-Confucianism, particularly the works of Zhu Xi.

Around 1841 (天保12年_{Tenpō 12}^Japanese), Yokoi, along with Nagaoka Koreyoshi, Shimotsu Kyuya, Motoda Nagazane, and Hagi Masakuni, established a study group. This group eventually evolved into the "Jitsugakutō" (Practical Learning Faction), advocating for reforms within the domain's administration. However, this brought them into conflict with the established "Gakkōtō" (School Party), led by chief retainer Matsui Akihisa. To avoid further political turmoil, Nagaoka resigned from his position as senior retainer, and the study group was disbanded. During this period, Yokoi also drafted the "Jimu Saku" (時務策_{Policy for Present Affairs}^Japanese), a foundational text for his practical learning philosophy.

In 1843 (天保14年_{Tenpō 14}^Japanese), Yokoi opened a private school, 私塾_shijuku^Japanese, in a room of his home, which was later formally named "Shōnan-do" in 1847 (弘化4年_{Kōka 4}^Japanese). His first disciple was Tokutomi Kazutaka, who would become the father of prominent figures Tokutomi Soho and Tokutomi Roka. His second disciple was Yajima Gensuke, and the school went on to educate many other influential individuals, including Kaetsu Ujifusa, Nagano Shunpei, Kawase Noritsugu, Yasuba Yasukazu, and Takezaki Ritsujiro.

Yokoi's reputation as a scholar began to spread beyond Kumamoto. In 1849 (嘉永2年_{Kaei 2}^Japanese), Midera Sansaku, a samurai from the Fukui Domain, studied at Shōnan-do, laying the groundwork for Yokoi's future invitation to Fukui. In 1852 (嘉永5年_{Kaei 5}^Japanese), Yokoi authored "Gakkō Mondōsho" (学校問答書_{Questions and Answers on Schools}^Japanese) at the request of the Fukui Domain, followed by "Bumbu Ichizu no Setsu" (文武一途の説_{Theory of the Unity of Civil and Military Arts}^Japanese) in 1853 (嘉永6年_{Kaei 6}^Japanese). In October of the same year, Yoshida Shoin, a prominent nationalist, visited Shōnan-do on his way to Nagasaki to board a Russian warship, engaging in a three-day discussion with Yokoi. In November, Yokoi sent "Iryo Otsetsu Taii" (夷虜応接大意_{General Principles for Dealing with Barbarians}^Japanese) to Kawaji Toshiakira, arguing against unconditionally rejecting foreign demands as it contradicts universal principles.

A personal change occurred in July 1854 (安政元年_{Ansei 1}^Japanese), when his elder brother, Yokoi Tokiaki, passed away at the age of 48 years. As Tokiaki's eldest son, Saheita, was only ten years old, Yokoi became the designated successor to the family headship. Around this time, he also severed ties with Nagaoka Koreyoshi due to fundamental disagreements in their philosophies.

In May 1855 (安政2年_{Ansei 2}^Japanese), Yokoi relocated to Numayamazu, a rural area in what is now Kumamoto City. He named his new residence "Shijiken" (四時軒_{Four Seasons Pavilion}^Japanese) and adopted "Shozan" (沼山_{Marsh Mountain}^Japanese) as one of his pen names, referencing the local geography. Shijiken soon became a vital meeting point for many figures who would later play crucial roles in the Meiji Restoration and the new Meiji government, including Sakamoto Ryoma, Inoue Kowashi, Yuri Kimimasa, and Motoda Nagazane.

1.3. Service in Fukui Domain and Bakufu Reforms

Yokoi Shōnan's influence began to extend beyond Kumamoto in 1857 (安政4年_{Ansei 4}^Japanese). In March of that year, Murata Ujitoshi, an envoy from Matsudaira Yoshinaga (also known as Matsudaira Shungaku), the daimyō of the Echizen Domain, visited Yokoi to invite him to serve as a political advisor in Fukui. Yokoi tentatively accepted, and after repeated requests from Shungaku to the Kumamoto Domain lord, Hosokawa Narimori (who initially hesitated due to past criticisms from the Practical Learning Faction), Yokoi received permission. In March 1858 (安政5年_{Ansei 5}^Japanese), he moved to Fukui, where he was appointed a guest teacher (賓師_hinshi^Japanese) with a stipend for 50 people and lectured at the domain school, Meidokan. In December of the same year, he returned to Kumamoto following the death of his younger brother. He was invited back to Fukui in 1859 (安政6年_{Ansei 6}^Japanese), but returned to Kumamoto again in December due to his mother's critical condition.

In February 1860 (万延元年_{Man'en 1}^Japanese), the Fukui Domain extended a third invitation, and Yokoi returned to Fukui. Observing the deep divisions between conservative and progressive factions within the domain, he authored the "Kokuze Sanron" (国是三論_{Three Major Discussions of State Policy}^Japanese) to advocate for unity. In this treatise, Yokoi discussed the concept of a state religion, noting that while Japan had Buddhism, Shinto, and Confucianism, it lacked a single, true national religion comparable to Western nations. He argued that this absence constituted a weakness in the Japanese kokutai (national polity), placing the country at a disadvantage against Western powers. This concept later contributed to the theoretical basis for State Shinto during the Meiji period. Additionally, he emphasized the critical importance of a powerful navy for Japan's defense. Although contemporary historians have labeled him "pro-Western," Yokoi held a critical view of Christianity, considering it both false and heretical when compared to Japanese Buddhism, and expressed concerns about potential conflicts its introduction might cause.

In April 1861 (文久元年_{Bunkyū 1}^Japanese), Yokoi traveled to Edo, where he first met Matsudaira Shungaku in person. During this stay, he also forged connections with influential figures such as Katsu Kaishū and Ōkubo Ichiō. He returned to Kumamoto in October of that year, accompanied by seven students from Fukui.

In June 1862 (文久2年_{Bunkyū 2}^Japanese), Yokoi left Kumamoto for his fourth invitation to Fukui. In July, he visited the Echizen Matsudaira family's residence in Edo, serving as a key advisor to Matsudaira Shungaku, who had unexpectedly been appointed acting prime minister of the Tokugawa administration (政事総裁職_{seiji sōsai}^Japanese). Yokoi advocated for a complete overhaul of the Tokugawa government, including a reconciliation between the Shogunate and the Imperial Court. He called for the full opening of Japan to foreign trade, comprehensive economic reform, and the establishment of a modern military based on Western models. Having studied Wei Yuan's "Illustrated Treatise on the Maritime Kingdoms" (海國圖志_{Hǎiguó Túzhì}^Chinese), Yokoi became convinced that Japan should pursue a "cautious, gradual, and realistic opening of its borders to the Western world" to avoid the pitfalls experienced by Qing dynasty China during the First Opium War. He also proposed the creation of a national assembly comprising representatives from the major domains, suggesting that the Shogun's role should evolve to resemble that of a prime minister. As a key document for these proposals, he drafted the "Kokuze Shichijo" (国是七条_{Seven Articles on National Policy}^Japanese) as a memorial to the bakufu. In August, he explained the contents of "Kokuze Shichijo" to Ōmetsuke Okabe Nagatsune and met Tokugawa Yoshinobu at the Hitotsubashi Tokugawa residence to discuss bakufu policies. During this period, he notably met Sakamoto Ryoma and Okamoto Kenzaburo at the Fukui domain's residence.

These radical ideas, however, provoked outrage among conservative elements within the government. Consequently, Yokoi was swiftly stripped of his posts and even his samurai status, and placed under house arrest in Kumamoto. Despite this setback, Yokoi continued to maintain clandestine contact with Katsu Kaishū and other reform-minded government officials during his period of exile.

1.4. Incidents and Hardships

Yokoi Shōnan's life was punctuated by several incidents that led to personal and political hardships. His independent spirit and unconventional actions often put him at odds with the conservative establishment.

One early incident occurred on December 25, 1839, when, after attending a year-end party hosted by Fujita Toko, Yokoi engaged in a brawl with individuals from outside his domain. This led to his reprimand and 70 days of house arrest (逼塞_hissoku^Japanese) starting February 9, 1840. During this period, he dedicated himself to scholarly pursuits.

Later, in November 1861 (文久元年_{Bunkyū 1}^Japanese), after returning from Edo, Yokoi became involved in what was known as the 榜示犯禁事件_{Bōshi Hankin Jiken}^Japanese, or the "Hunting Ground Regulation Violation." He was accused of firing leftover bullets in the swamp area of Numayamazu, which was designated as a lord-exclusive hawking ground. For this, he was placed under confinement (謹慎_kinshin^Japanese).

The most severe incident, known as the 士道忘却事件_{Shidō Bōkyaku Jiken}^Japanese (Neglect of Bushido Incident), transpired in the winter of 1862. On December 19, Yokoi was dining with Kumamoto domain samurai Tsuzuki Shiro and Tani Kurando at the separate residence of Yoshida Heinosuke. After Tani departed, three assassins-Kumamoto foot soldiers (足軽_ashigaru^Japanese) Kurose Ichiro Suke, Yasuda Kisuke, and Tsutsumi Matsuzaemon-launched an attack. Yokoi was unable to reach his swords. He narrowly evaded the attackers and fled to the Fukui domain residence in Tokiwabashi to retrieve a spare pair of swords. Upon returning, he found the assassins gone, but Yoshida and Tsuzuki were wounded; Yoshida later succumbed to his injuries.

Following this event, Yokoi remained in Fukui until August 1863 (文久3年_{Bunkyū 3}^Japanese). The Kumamoto Domain, however, vehemently criticized Yokoi's actions, deeming his escape while leaving his companions to fight as a neglect of bushido, or the samurai code. They demanded his transfer and punishment. The Fukui Domain defended Yokoi, arguing that his actions were justified given his service to the nation and that retrieving his swords was a natural response. Despite their defense, on December 16, 1863, Yokoi received a lenient sentence that spared him seppuku but resulted in the confiscation of his 150 koku stipend and the revocation of his samurai status, effectively making him a rōnin. He then returned to Shijiken in Numayamazu to live in confinement. This incident also had significant political repercussions, contributing to the failure of the Fukui Domain's plan for a full-domain procession to Kyoto, particularly in the context of the August 18 Incident.

In February 1864 (元治元年_{Genji 1}^Japanese), Sakamoto Ryoma visited Yokoi in Kumamoto on an errand from Katsu Kaishū. Yokoi elucidated the "Kokuze Shichijo" to Ryoma, a document that is widely believed to have served as one of the inspirations for Ryoma's later "Senchū Hassaku". Tokutomi Kazutaka was also present during this meeting. During this visit, Yokoi requested Ryoma's assistance in enabling his nephews, Saheita and Taihei, to enroll in the Kobe Naval Training Center. Ryoma visited Yokoi again in May 1865 (慶応元年_{Keiō 1}^Japanese), but their discussion about the Second Chōshū Expedition led to a disagreement, with Yokoi asserting that Chōshū Domain was in the wrong and the expedition was justified. This marked their final meeting. In 1866 (慶応2年_{Keiō 2}^Japanese), Yokoi penned "Sobetsu no Go" (送別の語_{Words of Farewell}^Japanese) for his nephews as they embarked on their studies in the United States.

1.5. Meiji Restoration and Assassination

With the advent of the Meiji Restoration, Yokoi Shōnan's fortunes turned. He was freed by the new Meiji government and recognized for his intellectual contributions and reformist ideals.

On December 18, 1867 (慶応3年12月18日_{Keiō 3, 12th month, 18th day}^Japanese), the Imperial Court dispatched a letter to both Nagaoka Moriyoshi and Yokoi, inviting them to Kyoto to serve in the newly formed government. However, the Kumamoto Domain harbored reservations about Yokoi's appointment, citing his revoked samurai status and using illness as an excuse to decline the invitation, even refusing to send Yokoi's disciples. Despite this, Iwakura Tomomi, then Vice-President of the new government, held Yokoi in high regard and issued a renewed order for him to come to Kyoto on March 8, 1868 (慶応4年3月8日_{Keiō 4, 3rd month, 8th day}^Japanese). Faced with the Imperial Court's direct command, the Kumamoto Domain relented, restoring Yokoi's (and Tsuzuki Mokube's) samurai status on March 20 and ordering him to proceed to Kyoto on March 22.

Yokoi arrived in Osaka on April 11, 1868, and was appointed a high-ranking official (徴士参与_{chōshi san'yo}^Japanese) on April 22. He entered Kyoto on April 21 (閏4月4日_{intercalary 4th month, 4th day}^Japanese), where he was formally appointed as a councilor (参与_san'yo^Japanese). The following day, he was granted the court rank of Junior Fourth Rank, Lower Grade (従四位下_jushiige^Japanese). However, the intense workload took a toll on his health, and he suffered from a severe fever in late May, becoming critically ill. He managed to recover by September and resumed his duties.

Tragically, on February 15, 1869 (明治2年1月5日_{Meiji 2, 1st month, 5th day}^Japanese in the old lunar calendar), Yokoi Shōnan was assassinated by a group of conservative samurai who suspected him of being a Christian and harboring secret republican sentiments.

1.5.1. Assassination Details and Aftermath

Yokoi Shōnan's assassination occurred on the afternoon of January 5, 1869 (明治2年1月5日_{Meiji 2, 1st month, 5th day}^Japanese), as he was returning from the Imperial Palace in Kyoto. He was attacked on Teramachi Street just south of Marutamachi Street in what is now Nakagyō-ku, Kyoto. The assault was carried out by a group of six Totsukawa Goshi (local samurai from Totsukawa), identified as Ueda Tateo, Nakai Toneo, Tsushita Shirozaemon, Maeoka Rikio, Yanagida Naozo, and Kashima Matanoshita.

Ueda Tateo fired a shot at Yokoi's palanquin, and then all six assailants charged with their swords. Although Yokoi's guards attempted to fight back, and Yokoi himself tried to defend with a short sword (短刀_tantō^Japanese), he was ultimately overpowered and assassinated at the age of 61. Kashima Matanoshita decapitated Yokoi and attempted to carry his head away. However, young retainers who rushed to the scene pursued Kashima and successfully recovered Yokoi's head.

In the aftermath, Yanagida Naozo died on January 12, 1869, from injuries sustained during the attack, and Nakai Toneo fled, with his whereabouts remaining unknown. The remaining four primary perpetrators-Ueda Tateo, Tsushita Shirozaemon, Maeoka Rikio, and Kashima Matanoshita-were subsequently executed on October 10, 1870 (明治3年10月10日_{Meiji 3, 10th month, 10th day}^Japanese). Additionally, three collaborators, including Uehira Chigara, were exiled, and four others received prison sentences.

2.1. Reformist Ideals

Yokoi Shōnan was a staunch critic of Japan's Sakoku (national isolation) policy and the prevailing Bakuhan system (the feudal system of the shogunate and domains). He envisioned a new state and society grounded in principles of publicness (公共性_kōkyōsei^Japanese) and revitalized commerce and trade (交易_kōeki^Japanese).

To achieve this ideal of a robust public sphere, Yokoi placed significant emphasis on inclusive public discourse. He advocated for "Kosho Toron" (講習討論_{lecturing and debating}^Japanese) and "Ho-yu Kogaku" (朋友講学_{studying with friends}^Japanese), viewing cross-status discussions and intellectual exchange as the most crucial elements of political operation. He believed that such open dialogue, transcending traditional social hierarchies, was essential for sound governance and societal progress.

His emphasis on trade extended to both foreign commerce and domestic industrial development. Yokoi actively promoted open trade with foreign nations and viewed the promotion of industry as an integral part of this broader commercial vision. He proposed strategies for autonomous domestic economic development and argued for the necessity of a unified national entity that transcended the existing fragmented bakufu and domain system to effectively implement these reforms. He believed that the existing Shogunate and Imperial Court should reconcile, and that the Shogun's role should evolve to resemble that of a Prime Minister, with a national assembly composed of representatives from the major domains. Influenced by Wei Yuan's "Illustrated Treatise on the Maritime Kingdoms" (海國圖志_{Hǎiguó Túzhì}^Chinese), Yokoi advocated for a "cautious, gradual, and realistic opening of its borders to the Western world" to learn from international experiences and avoid the mistakes made by countries like Qing dynasty China during the First Opium War.

2.2. Key Writings and Policy Proposals

Yokoi Shōnan articulated his core ideas through a series of significant writings and policy proposals. These works systematically laid out his vision for a reformed Japan.

Among his most important works is "Kokuze Sanron" (国是三論_{Three Major Discussions of State Policy}^Japanese), written in 1860 (万延元年_{Man'en 1}^Japanese) for the reform of the Fukui Domain's administration. This treatise presented a comprehensive framework for his state theory, advocating for a strong national identity, a powerful navy, and a reconsideration of Japan's spiritual foundation, which he believed lacked a true national religion akin to Western nations.

Other notable writings include:

• "Gakkō Mondōsho" (学校問答書_{Questions and Answers on Schools}^Japanese), penned in 1852 (嘉永5年_{Kaei 5}^Japanese), which explored the crucial connection between academic learning and political governance.
• "Iryo Otsetsu Taii" (夷虜応接大意_{General Principles for Dealing with Barbarians}^Japanese), written in 1853 (嘉永6年_{Kaei 6}^Japanese), an opinion paper offering strategic advice on how Japan should respond to the arrival of Western envoys like Matthew C. Perry and Yevfimiy Putyatin. In this work, Yokoi argued against unconditionally rejecting foreign demands, emphasizing the importance of pragmatic diplomacy.
• "Kokuze Shichijo" (国是七条_{Seven Articles on National Policy}^Japanese), drafted in 1862 (文久2年_{Bunkyū 2}^Japanese) as a memorial to the Tokugawa shogunate. This document outlined his proposals for a comprehensive reform of the government, including reconciliation between the shogunate and the Imperial Court, the complete opening of Japan to foreign trade, economic reforms, and the establishment of a modern military.
• "Numayama Taiwa" (沼山対話_{Numayama Dialogues}^Japanese), a record of his conversations with Inoue Kowashi in 1864 (元治元年_{Genji 1}^Japanese).
• "Numayama Kanwa" (沼山閑話_{Numayama Idle Talks}^Japanese), recording his dialogues with Motoda Nagazane in 1865 (慶応元年_{Keiō 1}^Japanese).

Yokoi was also notable for his progressive views on governance, even praising republicanism, particularly the presidential system, by likening it to the ancient Chinese ideal of 尭舜の世(禅譲)_{Yao and Shun's era (zenjō)}^Japanese, where leadership was transferred through merit rather than heredity.

2.3. Views on Western Civilization and Religion

Yokoi Shōnan held complex views on Western civilization and its influence. While he recognized the imperative for Japan to engage with the outside world and adopt certain Western advancements, he also harbored specific reservations, particularly regarding religion.

In his "Kokuze Sanron," Yokoi argued that Japan, despite having Buddhism, Shinto, and Confucianism, lacked a singular, unifying national religion akin to those found in Western nations. He believed this deficiency constituted a weakness within Japan's kokutai (national polity) and placed the country at a disadvantage in the international arena. This concept later provided a rationale underpinning the formation of State Shinto during the Meiji period. Within the same treatise, he strongly emphasized the necessity of building a powerful navy as a cornerstone of national defense.

Though labeled "pro-Western" by some historians for his advocacy of opening the country and adopting Western military models, Yokoi was notably critical of Christianity. He viewed it as both false and heretical when compared to established Japanese Buddhism. His primary concern was not theological, but pragmatic: he feared that the introduction of Christianity would lead to religious conflict and social disorder within Japan. His cautious approach to engagement with the West was further shaped by his study of Chinese scholar Wei Yuan's "Illustrated Treatise on the Maritime Kingdoms" (海國圖志_{Hǎiguó Túzhì}^Chinese). Yokoi became convinced that Japan should pursue a "cautious, gradual, and realistic opening of its borders to the Western world" to learn from international experiences and thereby avoid the catastrophic errors, such as the First Opium War, that Qing dynasty China had made.

3.1. Personal Traits and Relationships

Evaluations from his contemporaries paint a vivid picture of Yokoi Shōnan's personality. Katsu Kaishū, a prominent shogunate official and a key figure in the Bakumatsu period, held immense respect for Yokoi, describing him as "tremendously intelligent" from their first meeting. Katsu admired Yokoi's intellectual flexibility, noting that he would say, "Today I think this, but tomorrow it might be different," a sign of his open-mindedness and adaptability rather than a lack of conviction. Katsu also observed that Yokoi was "not a common measure" and "not affected by appearances," meaning he was authentic and unafraid to be himself. He noted Yokoi's remarkable ability to "use failures to his advantage," suggesting his pragmatic and resilient approach to problem-solving. When Katsu returned from the United States, he found Yokoi able to grasp complex American affairs quickly, remarking that Yokoi "knew ten things after hearing one." Katsu contrasted Yokoi's eloquence with Saigō Takamori's taciturn nature. Despite his admiration, Katsu also remarked on Yokoi's somewhat unconventional lifestyle, noting his frequent enjoyment of geisha and hōkan, and his tendency to feel fatigued after meeting only a few people, which he thought might have made regular political discussions tiresome for him. Katsu believed that Yasuba Yasukazu was perhaps Yokoi's only truly "good disciple," implying that Yokoi's unique genius was difficult to emulate. Katsu also described Yokoi's appearance as unassuming, resembling a daimyo's caretaker, dressed simply in a black chirimen kimono and hakama, and noted his amiable and non-confrontational demeanor, a stark contrast to Sakuma Zōzan.

Tokutomi Kazutaka, Yokoi's first disciple, provided a more intimate portrayal. He described Shōnan as a man of modest height, under 4.9 ft ^{(1.5 m)} (approximately 5 shaku), but with a large face, dark complexion, sharply defined eyebrows, and piercing eyes that radiated intelligence. Despite his age and recent illness at the time of his assassination, he moved with remarkable agility and vivacity. Tokutomi noted Yokoi's cheerful disposition, with his voice often heard from outside, instantly enlivening any gathering. While he possessed a fierce temper, his anger would subside quickly, leaving no lingering resentment, much "like a refreshing evening shower." Yokoi readily forgave and engaged openly with those who had opposed him once they showed willingness to change. He was a deeply thoughtful individual, constantly pondering ideas even during leisure activities like fishing or in the restroom. His passion for learning and discipline was immense. He engaged with everyone, from his disciples to farmers, fishermen, merchants, and even elderly women, always providing practical and beneficial advice tailored to their lives. Yokoi believed in guiding his students naturally, without rigid rules, fostering enjoyment in their learning process, and rigorously admonishing them against self-interest or flattery. He famously told an illiterate old man, "Taking over the world is easy," and often stated, "Humans can only achieve things when they are bones," implying the need for absolute dedication. Tokutomi saw Yokoi as a man who had transcended the pursuit of fame and profit, possessing a clear and unburdened spirit.

3.2. Personal Interests and Habits

Beyond his intellectual and political pursuits, Yokoi Shōnan engaged in several personal interests and habits that revealed a more private side of his character. His favorite leisure activities included fishing and hunting, with fishing being a particular passion. When he went hunting, he typically carried a simple lunch of millet rice bento with miso-pickled vegetables, shouldering his gun and walking at a leisurely pace. He was proficient in various fishing methods, notably excelling at 蚊頭ひき_kabuto-hiki^Japanese, a form of net fishing, which he often practiced on snowy days.

While Yokoi Shōnan had a low tolerance for alcohol, he was fond of it. After the infamous drinking brawl incident in Edo, he temporarily abstained. However, it was a common observation that the sacred sake placed on his family's Shinto altar would mysteriously disappear. His elder sister, out of sympathy for his abstinence, would discreetly refill the sake bottle on the altar every morning, only to find it empty the next day, a testament to his quiet indulgence.

4.1. Spouses and Children

Yokoi Shōnan had two spouses. His first wife was Hisa, the daughter of Ogawa Kishijuro, a Kumamoto Domain samurai. They married in February 1853 (嘉永6年_{Kaei 6}^Japanese), but Hisa passed away in 1856 (安政3年_{Ansei 3}^Japanese). Later that same year, he married his second wife, Tsuseko, who was the younger sister of his disciple, Yajima Gensuke.

With Tsuseko, Yokoi Shōnan had two notable children. His eldest son, Yokoi Tokio, went on to become the third president of Doshisha University and served as a member of the House of Representatives. His eldest daughter, Miyako, became the wife of Ebina Danjo, a prominent Christian pastor and educator.

4.2. Influential Relatives and Descendants

The Yokoi family boasted a distinguished lineage, tracing its origins back to the Kanmu Heishi (Taira clan of Emperor Kanmu's lineage) and specifically to the Hōjō clan's main branch, the Tokuso-ke. They claimed descent from Hōjō Tokiyuki, the son of Hōjō Takatoki. A fourth-generation descendant of Tokiyuki, Yokoe Tokitoshi, had a son who adopted the surname Yokoi, thus beginning the lineage through Yokoi Tokinaga. Generations of the Yokoi family consistently used the character "Toki" (時) in their names, a traditional practice for descendants of the Hōjō clan. Period portraits of Yokoi Shōnan even show him wearing the kamishimo adorned with the Hōjō clan's crest, the 三つ鱗_mitsuuromi^Japanese (three scales).

Yokoi Shōnan was also connected to several other influential figures through his second wife, Tsuseko. Tsuseko's sisters included Tokutomi Hisako (who married Yokoi's first disciple, Tokutomi Kazutaka), Takezaki Junko, and Yajima Kajiko. These four sisters, all daughters of the village headman (惣庄屋_sōshōya^Japanese) Yajima Chuzaemon Naoaki, were collectively renowned as the "Four Wise Women" (四賢婦人_{Shiken Fujin}^Japanese). A memorial hall dedicated to them exists in Mashiki-machi, Kumamoto Prefecture.

Among his relatives and intellectual heirs, Tokutomi Soho, the son of his disciple Tokutomi Kazutaka, considered himself Yokoi's spiritual successor and revered him as a lifelong master, heavily influenced by his father's teachings. Yokoi Shōnan's nephews, Yokoi Saheita and Yokoi Taihei, who were the sons of his elder brother Tokiaki, clandestinely traveled to the United States with funds provided by Yokoi Shōnan himself. Yokoi Taihei later returned to Japan due to illness and dedicated his efforts to establishing a Western-style school in Kumamoto. Notably, Yokoi Saheita's wife was Yokoi Tamako, who went on to found the prestigious Joshi Bijutsu Daigaku (Women's College of Fine Arts).

5.1. Positive Appraisals

Yokoi Shōnan has largely received positive appraisals for his forward-thinking ideas and his substantial contributions to Japan's modernization. His advocacy for an open trade, the development of national strength, and governance based on public consensus were considered revolutionary for his time.

Katsu Kaishū, a contemporary and admirer, held a high opinion of Yokoi's intellectual prowess, noting his "tremendous intelligence" and ability to adapt his views based on new information, showing a mind that was "not a common measure." Katsu particularly praised Yokoi's ability to grasp complex foreign affairs, such as the situation in the United States, with remarkable speed. He also admired Yokoi's authenticity, stating that he was "not affected by appearances," and his knack for turning even setbacks into opportunities, illustrating his pragmatic and resourceful nature.

Tokutomi Kazutaka, his devoted disciple, highlighted Yokoi's "聡敏正直^Japanese" (sagacity and honesty), "思慮周密^Japanese" (meticulous thoughtfulness), and powerful eloquence, which Kido Takayoshi famously dubbed "Yokoi's tongue-sword." Tokutomi also emphasized Yokoi's profound and continuous thought processes, describing him as a true "man of ideas" who was relentlessly disciplined in his pursuit of understanding. These qualities, combined with his dedication to guiding students and engaging with all levels of society, underscore his significant positive impact.

5.2. Criticisms and Debates

Despite his progressive vision, Yokoi Shōnan also faced criticisms and controversies during and after his lifetime. His critical views on Christianity, though rooted in pragmatic concerns about social stability rather than outright bigotry, were seen as rigid by some.

The "Shidō Bōkyaku Jiken" (Neglect of Bushido Incident), in which he fled an assassination attempt, drew severe condemnation from conservative elements within the Kumamoto Domain, leading to his temporary loss of samurai status. This incident sparked a debate about the true meaning of Bushido and his conduct.

Furthermore, the societal confusion surrounding his assassination, particularly the circulation of forged documents like the "Tendo Kakumeisho" (天道覚明書_{Book on the Enlightenment of the Heavenly Way}^Japanese), which falsely accused him of sedition, highlighted the deep ideological divisions and mistrust prevalent during the volatile early Meiji period. These controversies, while not diminishing his overall historical importance, reflect the challenges faced by reformers attempting to navigate a rapidly changing Japan.

6.1. Impact on Later Generations

Yokoi Shōnan's ideas and policy proposals exerted a significant influence on later generations of Japanese reformers and played a crucial role in shaping the course of the Meiji Restoration. His "Kokuze Shichijo" (国是七条_{Seven Articles on National Policy}^Japanese), in particular, is widely believed to have served as a foundational blueprint for Sakamoto Ryoma's famous "Senchū Hassaku" (船中八策_{Eight Proposals while on the ship}^Japanese), which outlined a progressive vision for Japan's new government.

His comprehensive vision for a unified, open, and modern state, emphasizing public discourse, economic reform, and military modernization, contributed substantially to the philosophical underpinnings of the Meiji government that emerged after the fall of the Tokugawa Shogunate. Beyond direct policy influence, his intellectual legacy was carried forward by his disciples and their descendants, most notably Tokutomi Soho, who, influenced by his father Tokutomi Kazutaka, regarded Yokoi as his lifelong intellectual master.

6.2. Memorials and Commemoration

To honor his contributions, several memorials and commemorative sites have been established for Yokoi Shōnan.

The Yokoi Shōnan Memorial Museum (横井小楠記念館_{Yokoi Shōnan Kinenkan}^Japanese), located at Numayamazu 1-25-91, Higashi-ku, Kumamoto City, stands adjacent to his former private school, Shijiken. The museum preserves and exhibits historical materials related to Yokoi Shōnan's life and work, offering insights into his intellectual and political journey.


Shonan Park (小楠公園_{Shōnan Kōen}^Japanese), situated at Numayamazu 4-11, Higashi-ku, Kumamoto City, is the site where a portion of Yokoi Shōnan's hair was buried after his assassination. The park features a memorial monument and a statue of Yokoi Shōnan. The inscription on the monument was penned by his intellectual heir, Tokutomi Soho. A memorial service (墓前祭_bozensai^Japanese) is held annually on February 15 at 10:00 AM at Shonan Park, officiated by Ukishima Shrine.

His grave, 横井小楠之墓_{Yokoi Shōnan no Haka}^Japanese, is located at Nanzen-ji's Tenju-an sub-temple in Kyoto.