WriterChineseNovelistPoet

Xiao Hong

Xiao Hong was a prominent Chinese writer acclaimed for her poignant depiction of marginalized women and social critique, leaving a lasting impact on modern literature.

1. Life

Xiao Hong's personal history was shaped by a challenging upbringing, complex relationships, and constant displacement, which profoundly influenced her literary themes and critical perspective on society.

1.1. Birth and Family Background

Xiao Hong was born on June 1, 1911, the day of the Dragon Boat Festival, into a wealthy landlord family in Hulan County, which is now part of Heilongjiang Province, approximately 19 mile (30 km) northeast of Harbin. Her birth name, Zhang Naiying, was given to her by her grandfather. Her childhood was far from happy, marked by a strained relationship with her father, who she described as cold, ruthless, and driven by greed, treating servants, children, and even his own father with miserliness and alienation. She recounted that her father often "lost his humanity for the sake of greed." Her mother, Jiang Yulan, was also described as stern and abusive, frequently scolding and even throwing stones at Xiao Hong. Her mother died when Xiao Hong was nine years old. Her father remarried, and her stepmother, Liang Yalan, continued to mistreat her.

Xiao Hong was the firstborn, but her father's affection shifted entirely to her younger brother, born when she was three or four, leading to her feeling abandoned. She lived in constant fear of her father's beatings, often seeking refuge in her grandfather's room. Her paternal grandmother was also unkind, reportedly pricking Xiao Hong's fingers with needles.

Her grandfather, Zhang Weiyue, was the sole source of warmth and understanding in her family. He would comfort her after her father's abuse, encouraging her to "Grow up! It's good to grow up." He nurtured her love for humanity, nature, truth, goodness, and beauty, and was the only one in the family who opposed the social injustices that Xiao Hong found terrifying and incomprehensible. He also taught her to read and write. This profound bond with her grandfather left a lasting impression, providing her with cherished memories that sustained her in later years, even after his death when she was 16. The harsh treatment from her family, particularly her father, instilled in her a strong aversion to traditional patriarchal norms and arranged marriages, ultimately leading her to leave home at the age of 20, vowing never to return.

1.2. Childhood and Education

Xiao Hong's early education began in 1920 at Yizhong Agricultural Elementary School (now Xiao Hong Elementary School) in Hulan's South Town. Five years later, she transferred to Quanhue Elementary School (later renamed County First Girls' Junior and Senior Elementary School) to complete her higher elementary education, graduating in 1926. In 1927, she enrolled in the District First Girls' Middle School (commonly known as First Girls' Middle School, now Harbin No. 7 Middle School) in the Special District of eastern Harbin.

Although the First Girls' Middle School was a conservative institution for daughters of prominent families, it was during this period that China was undergoing significant political turmoil and cultural reforms stemming from the May Fourth Movement (beginning May 4, 1919). Xiao Hong, like many of her peers, was drawn to student protests against the Japanese occupation of Manchuria (then known as the Three Eastern Provinces: Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning). Her favorite subjects were painting and history, taught by progressive young teachers. While her early passion was painting, with two works even exhibited locally, she later focused on literature, influenced by her history professor who introduced her to the burgeoning New Literature movement.

She became an avid reader of the literary supplement of the International Herald, a major Harbin newspaper, and developed a fondness for "new literature." She devoured works by modern Chinese writers such as Lu Xun, Xu Zhimo, Mao Dun, and Bing Xin, as well as Chinese translations of American writer Upton Sinclair and popular Russian authors. This exposure to socially conscious literature transformed her from a quiet, solitary, and contemplative girl into an enthusiastic advocate for freedom and democracy, and later, a patriotic writer vehemently opposing Japanese aggression.

1.3. Personal Life and Relationships

Xiao Hong's personal life was a series of struggles marked by societal pressures, abandonment, and profound emotional hardship, which she often reflected upon in her writings. She believed her early childhood experiences, particularly with her father, set a pattern for her future relationships, oscillating between feeling cherished and protected, or abandoned and tortured.

1.3.1. Early Marriage and Escape

In 1929, during a winter break visit to Hulan, Xiao Hong's father informed her of an arranged marriage to Wang Enjia, the son of a powerful local warlord. Fearing this marriage and with nothing to keep her in Hulan after her grandfather's death, Xiao Hong fled her home. In her essay "Early Winter" (Chu dong), she wrote, "I cannot go back to that kind of home. I'm not willing to be supported by a father who stands at the opposite pole from me."

She initially sought refuge with a young intellectual in Harbin, possibly a former teacher or a law student, with whom she lived for several months. In 1931, she traveled with him to Beijing, where she continued her studies at a middle school affiliated with Beijing Women's Normal University. However, she was soon abandoned by this man, reportedly after discovering he was married. This abandonment coincided with the Mukden Incident (September 18, 1931), when Japanese forces attacked Changchun and Shenyang, marking the beginning of the Sino-Japanese War.

Penniless and pregnant, Xiao Hong returned alone to Harbin. Rejected by relatives and friends, she endured extreme cold, at one point sleeping in the streets with temperatures dropping to -40 °F (-40 °C). She eventually found lodging in a hotel run by a White Russian, where she became indebted for rent and food, and tragically, addicted to opium supplied by the owner. Imprisoned in the hotel due to her debt of 400 CNY, she was on the verge of giving birth when she wrote a desperate plea for help to Pei Xiangyuan, the editor of the literary supplement of the International Herald.

In June 1932, Pei Xiangyuan rescued her, negotiating her release for 200 CNY amidst the chaos of a rising Songhua River that threatened to flood Harbin. He brought her to his home, where she was nursed back to health and helped to overcome her opium addiction.

1.3.2. Relationship with Xiao Jun

At Pei Xiangyuan's home, Xiao Hong met Xiao Jun (Liu Honglin, 1907-1988), a young journalist from Liaoning Province. Xiao Jun, described as a heavy drinker, argumentative, and prone to violence, was captivated by Xiao Hong's talent and resolved to save her. Their meeting marked a new hope for Xiao Hong, and in August 1932, they began living together.

In July 1932, Xiao Hong gave birth to a daughter, whom she immediately gave up for adoption due to their dire circumstances. Two months later, in September 1932, they were forced to leave Pei Xiangyuan's home after Xiao Jun had a violent outburst and damaged property. From then on, they lived a nomadic life, constantly struggling with poverty and Xiao Jun's volatile temper. Their cohabitation, though initially a source of literary collaboration and mutual support, was marked by instability due to Xiao Jun's domineering and indifferent nature. Xiao Hong, craving love and attention, often endured his mistreatment out of a need for support. This tumultuous relationship ultimately ended after six years, in 1938.

1.3.3. Relationship with Duanmu Hongliang

In 1938, Xiao Hong met and fell in love with writer Duanmu Hongliang, leading to the end of her relationship with Xiao Jun. They married in May 1938 in Wuhan. Their life together was also challenging, marked by the birth and subsequent death of a child shortly after birth, and further displacement due to the intensifying war. In January 1940, they traveled to Hong Kong, where Xiao Hong's health deteriorated, and she was again abandoned by Duanmu Hongliang during her illness.

1.3.4. Children

Xiao Hong faced immense hardship regarding her children. Her first child, a daughter conceived with Wang Enjia, was given up for adoption immediately after birth in July 1932 due to her inability to provide care. Her second child, a son with Duanmu Hongliang, died shortly after birth. These tragic events underscore the profound personal suffering and societal pressures she endured throughout her life.

2. Literary Career

Xiao Hong's literary career unfolded amidst personal hardship and national turmoil, producing a distinctive body of work characterized by its realism, emotional depth, and critical engagement with social issues.

2.1. Beginnings of Literary Activity

Xiao Hong's journey into writing began in earnest around 1933, encouraged by Xiao Jun. She started publishing her works, initially under the pen name Qiao Yin, in local newspapers such as the International Herald and Datong Daily. Her early inspirations stemmed from the New Literature movement and her deep engagement with socially oriented literature. In October 1933, she and Xiao Jun co-published Bashe (Trudging), a collection of stories and essays, with five stories by Xiao Hong (under the name Qiao Yin) and six by Xiao Jun (under the name San Lang). Although the book quickly gained her recognition, it was banned by the Japanese authorities in Manchuria due to its anti-Japanese stance, forcing them to burn most of the printed copies. Despite this early setback and the meager payment of 10 CNY per 100 characters for her writings, Xiao Hong continued to write prolifically.

2.2. Major Works

Xiao Hong's significant literary contributions include novels, short stories, and essays, often exploring themes of suffering, social injustice, and the plight of the marginalized.

2.2.1. The Field of Life and Death

The Field of Life and Death (Shengsi chang, 生死場Chinese (Chinese characters)), completed in Qingdao, was Xiao Hong's debut novel, published in 1935. It marked the first time she used the pen name Xiao Hong, and its publication significantly boosted her popularity. The renowned writer Lu Xun praised the novel for its "keen observations and extraordinary writing style." Despite critical acclaim, the novel faced censorship from the Nationalist Government, delaying its publication for six months. However, the subsequent ban on its circulation paradoxically increased its readership and cemented Xiao Hong's reputation.

2.2.2. Tales of Hulan River

Tales of Hulan River (Hulanhe zhuan, 呼蘭河傳Chinese (Chinese characters)), published posthumously in 1942, is considered one of her most important works. This novel presents a unique blend of personal history and regional narrative, offering a vivid portrayal of rural life in her hometown. It delves into the customs, superstitions, and tragic lives of the people in Hulan, reflecting her deep connection to her roots and her critical observation of traditional society. While some sources indicate it was completed in 1939 in Shaanxi, others state she wrote it in Hong Kong in 1940.

2.2.3. Other Notable Works

Xiao Hong's other important literary pieces include:

  • Qier (棄兒, Abandoned Child) (1933): Her first published story, appearing under the pen name Qiao Yin.
  • Bashe (跋涉, Trudging) (1933): A joint collection of stories and essays privately published with Xiao Jun.
  • Yong jiu de chong jing yu zhui qiu (永久的憧憬與追求) (1936): A sketch.
  • Shang Shijie (商市街, Market Street, also entitled A Chinese Woman in Harbin) (1936): A series of sketches detailing daily occurrences during her first two years with Xiao Jun in Harbin, reflecting their struggles with poverty.
  • Huiyi Lu Xun Xiansheng (回憶魯迅先生, Memories of Mr. Lu Xun) (1940): A collection of essays reflecting on her mentor.
  • Ma Bole (馬伯樂Chinese (Chinese characters)) (1940): A satirical novel set in Qingdao and Shanghai.
  • Hand (手): An important text in the literature of the suffering working body.
  • Xiaolü (小綠, Little Green) (1935): A short story.
  • Jiao (橋, The Bridge) (1936): A collection of short stories.
  • Niúchēshàng (牛車上, On the Bullock Cart) (1937): A collection of short stories.
  • Kuangye de Huhan (曠野的呼喊, Cries in the Wilderness) (1939/1940): A collection of short stories about the Sino-Japanese War.
  • Lianhua Chi (蓮花池, Lotus Pond)
  • Shan Xia (山下, Under the Mountain)
  • Taonan (逃難, Fleeing Disaster)
  • Menglong de Qidai (朦朧的期待, Vague Expectations)
  • Xiaocheng San Yue (小城三月, Three Months in a Small Town)

2.3. Literary Style and Themes

Xiao Hong's writing style is characterized by its stark realism, profound emotional depth, and lyrical quality. She often employed a unique narrative voice that blended personal experience with broader social commentary. Her works are deeply empathetic, focusing on the suffering of the marginalized, particularly women, and shedding light on social inequality and the struggles of ordinary people. She depicted the harsh realities of rural life, the decline of traditional society, and the devastating impact of war on individuals. Her narratives often lacked a strong plot, instead relying on vivid descriptions and psychological insights to convey the inner lives of her characters.

2.4. Relationship with Lu Xun

Xiao Hong held a deep admiration for Lu Xun, the leading figure of modern Chinese literature, whose works she began reading in 1927. She was particularly drawn to his focus on the relational aspects of self and shared human emotions. Their relationship proved pivotal to her literary career.

In 1934, before moving to Shanghai, Xiao Hong and Xiao Jun sent their manuscripts to Lu Xun, who had already read them by the time they arrived. He accepted their request to join the young leftist authors' circle and published both Xiao Hong's and Xiao Jun's novels in his Slave Series (Nuli congshu).

On November 27, 1934, Lu Xun invited them to lunch, and on December 19, he hosted them for dinner, where Xiao Hong met several people who would become close friends. From then on, they became frequent visitors to Lu Xun's home, often visiting daily. Lu Xun became a crucial mentor and benefactor, providing both material and spiritual support. He introduced her works to influential editors, many of whom were his close friends, and even personally funded the publication of her novel The Field of Life and Death and Xiao Jun's August in the Countryside through Rongguang Publishing House.

Lu Xun's support was instrumental in her success, especially when The Field of Life and Death faced censorship. He wrote the preface for the novel, and his unwavering encouragement fueled her prolific writing in 1935 and 1936. In early 1935, he famously predicted her bright future, stating that she was "the most promising female writer, showing more potential to surpass Ding Ling, just as Ding Ling had surpassed Bing Xin." Xiao Hong deeply cherished his mentorship, viewing him as a surrogate father and a guiding light in her literary journey.

3. Historical Context and Travels

Xiao Hong's life was inextricably linked to the turbulent historical landscape of early 20th-century China, marked by war, political upheaval, and constant displacement. Her extensive travels across the country reflect the instability of the era and profoundly influenced her literary output.

3.1. War and Social Upheaval

Major historical events cast a long shadow over Xiao Hong's life and work. The Manchurian Incident of September 18, 1931, which saw the Japanese military occupy Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo in March 1932, directly impacted her. Living in Harbin, then part of Manchukuo, she experienced the harsh realities of Japanese rule, including censorship and suppression of anti-Japanese sentiment. Her early co-published work, Bashe, was banned by Japanese authorities.

The outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War on July 7, 1937, further intensified the chaos. As Japanese forces advanced, Xiao Hong was forced to flee Shanghai, then Wuhan, constantly moving to escape the conflict. Her experiences of displacement, the suffering of war-torn populations, and the constant threat of bombings (such as the Bombing of Chongqing) deeply informed her writings, particularly her short stories about the war. Her final days in Hong Kong were also marked by the chaos of wartime, as the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong began in December 1941, directly preceding her death. These events instilled in her a profound empathy for the poor and marginalized, whose lives were shattered by the relentless social and political instability.

3.2. Journeys and Residences

Xiao Hong's life was a continuous journey across China, each location leaving its mark on her and her work:

  • Harbin (1911-1934):** Born in Hulan County near Harbin, she spent her childhood and early adult years here. After fleeing an arranged marriage and returning pregnant, she endured severe poverty and opium addiction before being rescued by Pei Xiangyuan. It was in Harbin that she met Xiao Jun and began her literary career, publishing Bashe and writing sketches for Market Street based on her experiences. The escalating political situation under Japanese rule forced her to leave.
  • Qingdao (1934):** In late May 1934, she and Xiao Jun fled Harbin for Qingdao, where they arrived in early June. Here, Xiao Hong wrote her debut novel, The Field of Life and Death. Despite Xiao Jun finding work at the Qingdao Morning Post, they remained impoverished, and Xiao Hong's health began to decline. Their relationship also started to show cracks.
  • Shanghai (1934-1937):** In November 1934, they moved to Shanghai, then a vibrant cultural and commercial hub. Here, they struggled initially to get their works published, relying heavily on the support of Lu Xun, who became her mentor and benefactor. She lived near Lu Xun and visited him almost daily. During her time in Shanghai, she published The Field of Life and Death and collections like Market Street, The Bridge, and On the Bullock Cart.
  • Japan (1936-1937):** In July 1936, Xiao Hong traveled alone to Japan for health reasons, returning to Shanghai in January 1937. Despite being abroad, she continued to write, producing works like Family Outsider, Lonely Life, Red Orchard, and Wang Si's Story. She returned to China on the ship Chichibu Maru due to deteriorating Sino-Japanese relations.
  • Wuhan (1937-1938):** Following the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War in July 1937 and the fall of Shanghai, Xiao Hong and Xiao Jun fled to Wuhan in September 1937. It was here that she first met Duanmu Hongliang.
  • Xi'an (1938):** In January 1938, she traveled to Linfen in Shanxi Province to teach, though some sources indicate she went to Xi'an in Shaanxi Province. It was in this region that her cohabitation with Xiao Jun ended, and she began living with Duanmu Hongliang.
  • Chongqing (1939-1940):** After Shaanxi, Xiao Hong resided in Chongqing, then the wartime capital. Here, she published Memories of Mr. Lu Xun and short stories about the war, later collected in Cries in the Wilderness. She also lived with Japanese pacifist Teru Hasegawa.
  • Hong Kong (1940-1942):** In January 1940, Xiao Hong and Duanmu Hongliang sought refuge in Hong Kong to escape the intensifying Chongqing bombings. Despite her worsening health, she continued to write, completing Ma Bole and Tales of Hulan River (though some sources say the latter was finished in Shaanxi in 1939). Her final days were spent in Hong Kong amidst the chaos of the Japanese occupation.

4. Ideology and Social Criticism

Xiao Hong's writings are imbued with a deep critical perspective on society, particularly her nascent feminist consciousness and her unwavering commitment to social justice.

4.1. Feminist Perspective

Xiao Hong's works consistently critique patriarchal structures and the oppressive traditional society that stifled women's lives. Drawing heavily from her own experiences of abuse, abandonment, and lack of autonomy within her family and relationships, she sensitively portrayed the suffering of women. Her narratives illuminate the ways women were treated as mere commodities or unpaid servants, rather than equals, in a society dominated by men. She depicted arranged marriages, domestic violence, and the limited opportunities available to women, implicitly advocating for women's rights and challenging the deeply entrenched gender inequalities of her time. Her personal struggles made her a powerful voice for the voiceless, and her work is now recognized as a significant contribution to Chinese feminist literature.

4.2. Social Justice and the Poor

Xiao Hong harbored profound empathy for the poor and marginalized, a theme that runs through much of her work. She used her writing to expose social inequality, the struggles of ordinary people, and the devastating impact of war and societal upheaval on their lives. Her vivid descriptions of the harsh realities faced by peasants and laborers, their poverty, and their resilience in the face of adversity, reflect her deep concern for a more just society. She often highlighted how economic hardship compounded the suffering caused by traditional customs and patriarchal norms. Her commitment to social justice was not merely theoretical; she actively participated in efforts to aid flood victims in Harbin, co-organizing an art exhibition to raise funds. Her works serve as a powerful testament to the human cost of an unstable and unjust society.

5. Death and Legacy

Xiao Hong's life ended tragically and prematurely, but her enduring impact on Chinese literature and culture is profound, solidifying her status as a significant voice of her time.

5.1. Final Days and Death

In January 1940, Xiao Hong and Duanmu Hongliang arrived in Hong Kong. Despite her deteriorating health, she continued to write, completing works like Ma Bole and Tales of Hulan River. In 1941, her condition worsened, and American writer Agnes Smedley, whom she met in Hong Kong, arranged for her admission to Queen Mary Hospital and negotiated reduced medical fees. Even from her sickbed, she completed Three Months in a Small Town and contributed a painting to Literary Times.

On December 8, 1941, the Pacific War erupted with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, followed by the Japanese siege of Hong Kong. Xiao Hong, suffering from severe pulmonary tuberculosis, was unable to flee. On January 13, 1942, she was transferred to the Happy Valley Sanatorium. Tragically, a negligent doctor, Li Shupe, misdiagnosed a throat tumor and severed her trachea, causing her immense pain. On January 18, she was moved back to Queen Mary Hospital. The next day, unable to speak, she wrote her last words: "I will forever part with the blue sky and clear waters, leaving half of Red Chamber for others to write," and "Half my life has been met with cold eyes... I die before my time, unwilling, unwilling."

Xiao Hong died on January 22, 1942, at the temporary hospital of St. Stephen's Girls' College in Hong Kong, at the age of 31. Her body was cremated on January 24 at the Happy Valley Crematorium, and her ashes were interred on January 25 at the Repulse Bay cemetery in Hong Kong, near Lido Garden. More than 15 years later, on August 15, 1957, her ashes were moved to the Guangzhou Yinhe Revolution Public Cemetery in Guangdong Province.

5.2. Posthumous Evaluation and Influence

Xiao Hong's influence on modern Chinese literature is significant. Immediately after her death, some began to write about her life and memories. However, serious academic study of her work only began later: in Taiwan from 1955, in Japan from 1962, and in the United States from 1976. In mainland China, extensive research and reprinting of her works only gained momentum in the 1980s. This delay was partly due to her feminist views and experimental narrative style, which did not align with the official socialist realism doctrine of the time. Literary critic C. T. Hsia lamented in 1979 his "inexcusable oversight" for not having reviewed The Field of Life and Death and Tales of Hulan River in his History of Modern Chinese Fiction.

Today, Xiao Hong is widely recognized for her pioneering role in advocating for women's rights in China. Her works are particularly noted for their sensitive and critical portrayal of women as victims of patriarchal society and male mistreatment. Her personal experiences as a victim of domineering and arrogant men, and a social system that regarded women as mere playthings or unpaid servants, deeply informed her writing. She is celebrated for her unique literary style and her profound insights into the human condition during a tumultuous period of Chinese history. Her legacy continues to inspire scholars and readers, solidifying her place as one of the most prominent and representative modern Chinese writers.