Shimazu Hisamitsu

2.1. Birth and Childhood

Shimazu Hisamitsu was born on October 24, 1817 (or November 28, 1817, according to some Western calendars), at Kagoshima Castle in Kagoshima Province (modern-day Kagoshima City, Kagoshima Prefecture). He was the fifth son of Shimazu Narioki, the 10th daimyō of the Satsuma Domain. His birth mother was Yura, one of Narioki's concubines, whose relatively low status initially affected Hisamitsu's standing. His childhood name was Kanenoshin (普之進_Kanenoshin^Japanese). Some historical records, such as the Shimazu Family's Orthodox Genealogy, omit the detail of his brief adoption into the Tanegashima clan.

In 1818, at the age of one, Kanenoshin was briefly adopted into the Tanegashima clan as an heir, a move that allowed him to receive the treatment befitting a kōshi (son of a feudal lord). However, he was returned to the Shimazu family while still a child. In 1825, he was adopted into the Shigetomi-Shimazu (重富島津家_{Shigetomi-Shimazu-ke}^Japanese), a prominent branch family of the main Shimazu house, becoming the adopted son and future heir of his uncle, Shimazu Tadakimi. Upon this adoption, his name was changed to Matajirō (又次郎_Matajirō^Japanese). In 1828, he came of age and took the adult name Tadayuki (忠教_Tadayuki^Japanese), with Narioki, his father, serving as his eboshioya (person who places the ceremonial hat during the coming-of-age ritual).

2.2. Education and Early Activities

Tadayuki was known for his scholarly interests, much like his elder half-brother, Shimazu Nariakira. However, their academic preferences diverged significantly: Nariakira favored Rangaku (Dutch studies) and Western sciences, while Tadayuki was deeply engrossed in Kokugaku (National Learning), a school of Japanese philological and philosophical study that emphasized the purity of Japanese culture and ancient traditions. This intellectual inclination towards native traditions would later influence his conservative political views. In May 1858, when the shogunate warship Kanrin Maru visited Kagoshima, Nariakira introduced Tadayuki to Katsu Kaishū.

In 1836, Tadayuki formally married Shimazu Chiyoko (島津千百子_{Shimazu Chiyoko}^Japanese), the daughter of the previous Shigetomi lord, Tadakimi, who was also his cousin. In November 1839, he inherited the headship of the Shigetomi-Shimazu family, subsequently changing his common name to Yamashiro (山城_Yamashiro^Japanese), then to Suō (周防_Suō^Japanese) in October 1847. Hisamitsu also began to take on early public roles, being appointed as the Gunyakukata Myōdai (Agent for Military Affairs) by Nariakira in 1847, a position that involved managing coastal defenses.

2.3. Oyura Disturbance and Succession

The Shimazu family was embroiled in a succession dispute known as the Oyura Disturbance (Oyura sōdō; お由羅騒動_{Oyura sōdō}^Japanese) during the late 1840s and early 1850s. This conflict arose over the succession to Shimazu Narioki, the 10th lord of Satsuma. Two factions emerged, one supporting Hisamitsu (Tadayuki) and the other backing his elder half-brother, Shimazu Nariakira. While Tadayuki was the favored candidate of the faction led by his mother, Oyura, and other conservatives, he was largely a figurehead for their cause, and his personal relationship with Nariakira remained amicable throughout the dispute. Nariakira, who advocated for modernization and Western technology, ultimately won the dispute with the intervention of the Tokugawa Shogunate, leading to Narioki's retirement and Nariakira's assumption of the domain headship in 1851.

However, Nariakira's sudden death in 1858, followed by Narioki's death in 1859, dramatically altered the succession landscape. Nariakira's will designated Tadayuki's young son, Mochihisa (茂久_Mochihisa^Japanese, later known as Shimazu Tadayoshi), as the next lord of Satsuma. This development significantly elevated Tadayuki's political standing. As the biological father of the new, underage daimyō, Tadayuki assumed a position of unparalleled influence within the domain, effectively becoming the de facto supreme authority, often referred to as "the Father of the Domain." In 1861, he formally returned to the main Shimazu house and changed his name to Hisamitsu, solidifying his new role. He also moved from the Shigetomi residence to the newly constructed Ninomaru residence in Kagoshima Castle in 1862, where he was also known as Fukujō-kō (Vice Castle Lord).

4.1. Kōbu Gattai Movement

In 1862, Hisamitsu embarked on his first major expedition to Kyoto, departing Kagoshima on March 16 and arriving on April 16. Upon his arrival on April 16, Hisamitsu made an unofficial visit to the Konoe family residence in Kyoto, where he met with Konoe Tadahusa, Nakayama Tadayasu, and Ōgimachi-Sanjō Sanetaka. On the same day, an Imperial order was issued commanding Hisamitsu to remain in Kyoto and suppress rogue rōnin. The following day, April 17, Hisamitsu formally entered the Satsuma domain's Kyoto residence on Nishikikōji street. His objective was to advance the Kōbu Gattai (Union of Court and Shogunate) movement, a political ideology advocating for cooperation between the Imperial Court and the Tokugawa Shogunate, thereby preserving the existing feudal order while implementing necessary reforms. This initiative was presented as a continuation of his deceased brother Nariakira's legacy.

During his stay in Kyoto, Hisamitsu demonstrated his decisive, and at times harsh, leadership by orchestrating the Teradaya Incident on April 23, 1862. At the Teradaya inn in Fushimi (modern-day Fushimi-ku, Kyoto), Hisamitsu's retainers purged radical Sonnō jōi (Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians) loyalists from Satsuma, such as Arima Shinshichi, who had gathered there planning violent actions against the Shogunate. This act, while suppressing extremist elements within his own domain, also served to assert Satsuma's commitment to maintaining order and control, even if it meant internal conflict.

Hisamitsu's diplomatic efforts in Kyoto bore fruit. On May 9, it was decided that an Imperial envoy would be dispatched to Edo to demand shogunate reforms, with Hisamitsu ordered to accompany them. The envoy carried the "Three Articles Policy" (Sanji Saku), a set of demands for the Shogunate:

• The shōgun, Tokugawa Iemochi, should travel to Kyoto.
• A council of five powerful domains (Satsuma, Chōshū, Tosa, Sendai, and Kaga) should be established, akin to a "Five Great Elders" system.
• Tokugawa Yoshinobu (Hitotsubashi Yoshinobu) should be appointed as the Shogun's Guardian (shōgun kōken-shoku), and former Fukui Domain lord Matsudaira Yoshinaga (Matsudaira Shungaku) as the Chief of Political Affairs (seiji sōsai-shoku).

It is believed that for Hisamitsu, the primary goal among the 'Three Articles Policy' for shogunate reform was to realize the third article, which was his own proposal. Before departing for Edo, Hisamitsu changed his common name from Izumi to Saburō on May 12. This change was reportedly to avoid sharing the same common name (Izumi-no-kami) with the Shogunate's rōjū (senior councilor), Mizuno Tadakiyo. He then departed Kyoto on May 21, accompanying the Imperial envoy Ōhara Shigetomi, arriving in Edo on June 7. Through negotiations with the Shogunate's leadership, Hisamitsu successfully secured the appointments of Yoshinobu and Shungaku by July 6 and 9, respectively, leading to the implementation of the comprehensive Bunkyū Reforms.

4.2. Namamugi Incident and Anglo-Satsuma War

Having achieved his objectives in Edo, Hisamitsu departed on August 21, 1862, for his return journey along the Tōkaidō road. While en route, near Namamugi village in Musashi Province (present-day Namamugi, Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa Prefecture), Hisamitsu's procession encountered four British civilians, including merchant Charles Lennox Richardson. The British, who failed to dismount or yield the path to Hisamitsu's retinue as was customary for high-ranking samurai processions, offended Hisamitsu's retainers. This breach of etiquette led to an argument, a chase, and ultimately, a violent confrontation in which Richardson was killed and two others wounded. This incident became known as the Namamugi Incident. Notably, an American merchant, Eugene Van Reed, had encountered Hisamitsu's procession earlier and, understanding Japanese customs, dismounted and bowed, avoiding any confrontation.

The Namamugi Incident escalated rapidly, leading to a diplomatic crisis between Britain and the Satsuma Domain. Hisamitsu arrived back in Kyoto on September 21, reporting the success of the Shogunate reforms to the Imperial Court before returning to Kagoshima on October 7. However, the British government demanded reparations and the perpetrators' apprehension. Satsuma's refusal to comply resulted in the Anglo-Satsuma War in July 1863, when the Royal Navy bombarded Kagoshima. Despite the fierce fighting and heavy damage to Kagoshima, the war ultimately led to negotiations and a peace settlement, which surprisingly fostered a cooperative relationship between Satsuma and Britain, contributing to Satsuma's later modernization efforts.

4.3. Setback of Kōbu Gattai and Shift to Overthrow Movement

Hisamitsu made a second journey to Kyoto in March 1863, but his attempts to curb the influence of the radical Sonnō jōi faction, which was increasingly backed by the Chōshū Domain, proved unsuccessful. He returned to Satsuma after only five days, unable to quell the escalating anti-foreign sentiment and the radicals' aggressive actions. Despite this setback, he continually received requests from Emperor Kōmei and conservative court nobles, such as Prince Kuni Asahiko and the Konoe family (Konoe Tadahiro and Tadahusa), who were critical of the loyalists' extremism, to return to Kyoto and restore order.

Following the August 18th Coup in 1863, which saw Satsuma and Aizu Domain forces expel Chōshū loyalists from Kyoto with Imperial backing, Hisamitsu made his third journey to Kyoto in October. At Hisamitsu's urging, the Imperial Court agreed to involve influential daimyō in Imperial conferences (chōgi). Consequently, a council of prominent lords, known as the Sanyo Kaigi (参預会議_{Sanyō Kaigi}^Japanese, Council of Participating Daimyō), was formed in December 1863. Its members included Tokugawa Yoshinobu, Matsudaira Shungaku, former Tosa lord Yamauchi Yōdō, former Uwajima Domain lord Date Munenari, and Aizu lord Matsudaira Katamori. Hisamitsu himself was appointed to the council on January 14, 1864, and simultaneously granted the court rank of Junior Fourth Rank, Lower Grade (ju-shii ge) and the military title of Junior Commander of the Left Division of Inner Palace Guards (sakon'e gon-shōshō). This rank was comparable to that of successive Satsuma daimyō. Prior to obtaining this official court rank, Hisamitsu, despite being the de facto supreme authority of the Satsuma Domain, was formally considered a mere vassal from the perspective of the Shogunate and the Imperial Court, as he was merely the biological father of the domain lord.

The Sanyo Kaigi aimed to implement Hisamitsu's vision of Kōbu Gattai. However, deep political divisions quickly emerged, particularly over the opening of Yokohama Port. Emperor Kōmei favored its closure (a form of limited jōi), while Hisamitsu, Shungaku, and Munenari advocated for military preparedness over isolation. Yoshinobu, by contrast, prioritized diplomatic relations. Although Hisamitsu and his allies eventually conceded to Yoshinobu's stance on port closure, the underlying disagreements persisted, leading to the rapid dissolution of the Sanyo Kaigi. Hisamitsu resigned his position on March 14, 1864, entrusting future affairs to Komatsu Tatewaki and Saigō Takamori, and returned to Satsuma on April 18. This effectively marked the failure of the Kōbu Gattai movement as envisioned by Satsuma.

During the approximately three years Hisamitsu remained in Satsuma, central political events continued to unfold. Aiming for a second Chōshū expedition, Shogun Tokugawa Iemochi departed Edo Castle on May 16, 1865, and entered Osaka Castle on June 18, establishing it as the headquarters for the Chōshū campaign. On October 5, under the military pressure of Western powers, Emperor Kōmei, persuaded by Hitotsubashi Yoshinobu and others, issued an Imperial decree sanctioning the unequal treaties, but withheld approval for the opening of Hyōgo Port. Other events included the Kinmon Incident (July 1864), the First Chōshū Expedition, the formation of the secret Satchō Alliance between Satsuma and Chōshū (January 1866), the Second Chōshū Expedition (resulting in a de facto shogunate defeat), the death of Shogun Tokugawa Iemochi (July 1866), Tokugawa Yoshinobu's appointment as Shogun (December 1866), Emperor Kōmei's death (December 1866), and Crown Prince Mutsuhito's (Emperor Meiji) ascension to the throne (January 1867). Amidst these changes, Hisamitsu hosted Harry Parkes, the British Minister to Japan, in Kagoshima in June 1866, reaffirming the amicable relationship that had developed between Satsuma and Britain after the Anglo-Satsuma War.

Hisamitsu's fourth and final journey to Kyoto commenced in March 1867, arriving on April 12. There, he participated in the Four Lords Conference (Shikō Kaigi) alongside Matsudaira Shungaku, Yamauchi Yōdō, and Date Munenari. The main issues at hand were the impending opening of Hyōgo Port and the unresolved punishment of the Chōshū Domain following the Second Chōshū Expedition. Although the opening of Hyōgo Port had been previously withheld by Emperor Kōmei during the treaty sanction in October 1865, it was scheduled for January 1, 1868, under the London Memorandum of 1862, which required the Shogunate to announce the opening six months in advance. Therefore, the Shogunate needed to obtain Imperial approval for Hyōgo Port by the proclamation deadline. The four lords aimed to consult with Shogun Yoshinobu to resolve these matters through a united front. However, in meetings at Nijō Castle in May, Yoshinobu insisted on prioritizing the Hyōgo Port issue due to foreign relations, while the lords pushed for leniency and a quicker resolution regarding Chōshū. Although the subsequent Imperial deliberations resulted in a simultaneous approval of both issues, the details of the Chōshū settlement remained vague, heavily influenced by Yoshinobu's intentions.

This political stalemate and Yoshinobu's perceived inflexibility ultimately led Hisamitsu to a decisive conclusion: further political compromise with the Shogunate was impossible. At his decision, the Satsuma domain leadership definitively shifted its policy towards armed overthrow of the Shogunate.

Though ill, Hisamitsu moved to Osaka on August 15, 1867. He returned to Kagoshima on September 21. On October 14, a Secret Imperial Edict to Overthrow the Shogunate (Tōbaku no mikochin) was issued to both Hisamitsu and his son Tadayoshi, sanctioning military action against the Tokugawa. On the same day, Tokugawa Yoshinobu submitted his proposal for Taisei Hōkan (Return of Imperial Rule) to the Emperor. The next day, October 15, the Imperial Court approved Yoshinobu's proposal and ordered powerful daimyō with domains of 100,000 koku or more to assemble in Kyoto. Specifically, Hisamitsu, Tokugawa Yoshikatsu, Matsudaira Shungaku, Yamauchi Yōdō, Date Munenari, Asano Nagaaki, Nabeshima Naomasa, and Ikeda Mochimasa were summoned. Due to his illness, Hisamitsu could not comply with the order and returned to Kagoshima on September 21. Instead, his son Tadayoshi led 3,000 Satsuma troops, departing Kagoshima on November 13. En route, in Mitajiri, Suō Province (modern-day Hōfu, Yamaguchi Prefecture), Tadayoshi met with Mōri Motonori, the heir of Chōshū Domain, on November 18, and they agreed on a joint military expedition involving Satsuma, Chōshū, and Hiroshima Domain. Tadayoshi's forces entered Kyoto on November 23, setting the stage for the Ōsei Fukko (Restoration of Imperial Rule) and the subsequent Boshin War.

5.1. Role in the New Government

Despite his initial support for the overthrow of the Shogunate, Hisamitsu found himself at odds with the direction of the new Meiji government. He clashed with younger, more progressive samurai, primarily those from the lower ranks who had gained prominence during the Boshin War, such as Kawamura Sumiyoshi, Notsu Shigeo, and Ijuin Kanetake. This power struggle resulted in Hisamitsu losing administrative control of the domain to these emerging leaders.

In February 1869, Hisamitsu reluctantly traveled to Kyoto at the behest of Imperial envoy Yanagihara Sakimitsu, who was accompanied by Ōkubo Toshimichi. The Imperial capital had been relocated to Tokyo in March 1869, with Emperor Meiji moving there from Kyoto, and Edo Castle becoming the 'Imperial Palace' and the Daijō-kan (Great Council of State) also moving to Tokyo. Upon his arrival on March 2, he had an audience with the Emperor on March 3 and was appointed to the court rank of Junior Third Rank (ju-san-mi) and the position of Sangi (Councilor of State) on March 6. He returned to Kagoshima on March 21.

In January-February 1870, Ōkubo Toshimichi returned to Kagoshima from Tokyo to persuade Hisamitsu and Saigō Takamori to join the government in Tokyo. However, Hisamitsu felt that he had been manipulated and that the new government was not truly serving his vision. He refused to be persuaded, and Ōkubo's mission to bring him and Saigō to Tokyo failed. In December of the same year, Imperial envoy Iwakura Tomomi, accompanied by Ōkubo, again visited Kagoshima to request Hisamitsu and Saigō's presence in Tokyo. While Saigō agreed, Hisamitsu pleaded illness and sought a delay.

In February 1871, the establishment of the Goshinpei (Imperial Guard), formed by troops from Kagoshima (Satsuma), Yamaguchi (Chōshū), and Kōchi (Tosa) domains, was decided. Saigō Takamori returned to Kagoshima from Tokyo to oversee troop preparations. In April, Hisamitsu's son, Shimazu Tadayoshi (the Han-chiji or Domain Governor), traveled to Tokyo with Saigō. For Hisamitsu, this move was a critical miscalculation, as the transfer of Satsuma's formidable military forces to the Imperial Guard effectively stripped him of a crucial source of his power.

5.2. Opposition to Reforms and Abolition of Han System

Hisamitsu's discontent intensified dramatically with the Abolition of the Han System (Haihan Chiken), which was unilaterally enforced on July 14, 1871, largely driven by Saigō and Ōkubo. Hisamitsu was reportedly enraged by this move, viewing it as a deceitful act. In a dramatic show of protest, he ordered fireworks to be launched from his residence for an entire night, an action that stood as the sole overt expression of resentment among the former daimyō against the abolition. However, because administrative power had already largely shifted to the lower-ranking samurai, his protest was symbolic and ultimately ineffective. On September 10, 1871, the government ordered the creation of a separate branch family for him, the Tamari-Shimazu family (玉里島津家_{Tamari-Shimazu-ke}^Japanese), granting him a stipend of 50,000 koku, separated from Tadayoshi's main domain stipend of 100,000 koku.

Further aggravating Hisamitsu, the establishment of Miyakonojō Prefecture on November 14, 1871, split the former Satsuma domain into Kagoshima Prefecture and Miyakonojō Prefecture. Hisamitsu suspected a "Chōshū conspiracy" behind this division and even expressed a desire to become the Kagoshima prefectural governor himself. This request was discreetly suppressed by Saigō Takamori, who was reportedly perturbed by it.

In June 1872, Emperor Meiji undertook an Imperial Tour of western Japan, which included a visit to Kagoshima from June 22 to July 2. The primary objective of this tour was reportedly to appease Hisamitsu, who was increasingly alienated by the central government's reforms. Despite the Emperor's visit and the presence of many former Kagoshima samurai like Saigō Takamori, Saigō Tsugumichi, Kawamura Sumiyoshi, Yoshii Tomozane, and Takashima Tomonosuke in the Imperial entourage, Hisamitsu was reportedly angered by their failure to pay him proper respects. In response, on June 28, Hisamitsu submitted a 14-article proposal to the government, advocating for the restoration of old customs and containing a distinctly conservative viewpoint that countered the government's reform agenda. Although a supplementary note regarding this proposal was reportedly submitted by Hisamitsu on June 22 of the following year, the actual submission remains a subject of historical debate.

Hisamitsu was once again urged to travel to Tokyo by Imperial envoys Katsu Kaishū and Nishi Yotsutsuji Kimimune in March 1873. He departed Kagoshima on April 17 and arrived in Tokyo on April 23. On May 10, he was appointed Jakōma Shikō (Chamberlain). On December 25, he became a Cabinet Advisor (Naikaku Komon). In February 1874, following the outbreak of the Saga Rebellion, Hisamitsu returned to Kagoshima to comfort Saigō Takamori, who had resigned from the government during the Meiji Six Coup. In April, Imperial envoys Manri Koji Hirofusa and Yamaoka Tesshū were dispatched to Kagoshima, and Hisamitsu complied with their order to return to Tokyo. On April 27, he was appointed Sadaijin (Minister of the Left). On May 23, he proposed the restoration of old customs, but his suggestions were largely disregarded, effectively excluding him from the government's key policy decisions.

6.1. Secluded Life and Literary Activities

On October 22, 1875, Hisamitsu submitted his resignation as Minister of the Left, which was formally accepted on October 27. On November 2, he was reappointed Jakōma Shikō. In April 1876, he returned to Kagoshima, where he would live a secluded life for the remainder of his days.

In retirement, Hisamitsu dedicated himself to scholarly pursuits, focusing on the collection and compilation of historical documents related to the Shimazu family. His efforts led to the creation of the "Tamari Bunko," a significant collection of historical materials and classical texts that are now housed in the Kagoshima University Library. He also authored and edited historical works, including Tsūzoku Kokushi (通俗国史_{Popular National History}^Japanese).

Despite the government's aggressive policies to promote Westernization and discard traditional customs, such as the Haitōrei (Decree Banning Swords) in 1876, Hisamitsu remained staunchly resistant. He famously refused to cut his chonmage (topknot) throughout his life, and continued to wear his samurai sword and traditional Japanese attire (wasō) in defiance of the new fashion trends and government decrees. This steadfast adherence to tradition symbolized his deep dissatisfaction with the radical changes sweeping the nation.

During the Satsuma Rebellion (Seinan Sensō), which erupted in February 1877 when Saigō Takamori and his followers rose in revolt, the government was deeply concerned about Hisamitsu's stance. Imperial envoy Yanagihara Sakimitsu was dispatched to Kagoshima to urge Hisamitsu to travel to Tokyo. However, Hisamitsu maintained a position of neutrality, communicating his stance to Daijō-daijin (Chancellor of the Realm) Sanjo Sanetomi in a written address. Instead of traveling himself, he sent his fourth son, Shimazu Uzuhiko, and fifth son, Shimazu Tadakata, to Kyoto to represent him. During the conflict, Hisamitsu also temporarily evacuated to Sakurajima to escape the fighting.

The Meiji government continued to deliberate on Hisamitsu's treatment, eventually deciding to accord him the highest possible honors and titles, including the highest court ranks and peerage. However, it is said that after the deaths of Saigō and Ōkubo, the government's cautious deference towards Hisamitsu diminished. Hisamitsu, for his part, reportedly continued to lament until the very end that "Saigō was deceived by Ōkubo," reflecting his deep-seated skepticism about the motivations and actions of those who led the radical reforms.

6.2. Death and Funeral

Shimazu Hisamitsu died on December 6, 1887, at his Tamari residence in Shimoishiki Village, Kagoshima District (present-day Tamari-chō, Kagoshima City), at the age of 70.

Hisamitsu was accorded a state funeral (kokusō). Unusually, the funeral was held in Kagoshima rather than Tokyo. To facilitate the grand ceremony, roads in Kagoshima were specially improved, and a battalion of honor guards from the Kumamoto Garrison was dispatched. His seventh son, Shimazu Tadatsugu, succeeded him as the head of the Tamari-Shimazu Ducal family.

Hisamitsu's grave is located at the Shimazu family cemetery, the former site of Fukushō-ji in Kagoshima City. A bronze statue of him stands in Terukuni Shrine in Kagoshima City.

8.1. Historical Assessment

Contemporaries and later historians have offered diverse evaluations of Hisamitsu's achievements, character, and political role.

• Matsudaira Yoshinaga (Matsudaira Shungaku) described Hisamitsu as "quite a conservative who rigidly adhered to old laws," acknowledging that "though there were criticisms, he highly valued morality over intellect, and his loyalty to the Emperor surpassed even that of Prince Nariakira." Shungaku also noted Hisamitsu's preference for naval development over land forces, and found his conversations often inspiring. These remarks were recorded in the Iji Shiho.
• Kido Takayoshi initially perceived Hisamitsu as "a stubborn person with outdated ideas." However, Kido later recounted an anecdote where Hisamitsu expressed frustration over the lack of capable individuals among the kazoku, especially after Yamauchi Yōdō's passing. This led Kido to revise his assessment, concluding that Hisamitsu was "not merely a stubborn man, but a person of significant standing." The anecdote also included a humorous clash between Hisamitsu and Yōdō over entering Nijō Castle, where Yōdō physically pulled Hisamitsu, prompting Hisamitsu to strike Yōdō's hand with his pipe in frustration. This anecdote is found in Kido Shōkiku-kō Itsuwa.
• Itō Hirobumi stated that "people often say Prince Shimazu was a stubborn man, but that is not true. He once said, 'I would never advocate for jōi (expulsion of barbarians); that is what Saigō and others say.' However, he disliked adopting Western customs." This suggests Hisamitsu was not necessarily anti-foreign in principle but deeply attached to traditional Japanese ways of life.
• Ōkuma Shigenobu offered a nuanced view, describing Hisamitsu as "a feudal lord of a great domain, possessing wisdom and renown, whose demeanor and speech were far beyond those of ordinary lords." Ōkuma noted that Hisamitsu was "neither rigidly unchangeable nor impossibly unyielding," possessing a good command of language, rich scholarship, and a broad-minded yet refined character. Ōkuma also found him "truly a distinguished lord of his time, an exemplary figure in every respect," inspiring deep respect. These reflections are from Ōkuma Shigenobu Jijo-den. However, Ōkuma also observed that "as a daimyō, his appearance and demeanor were not particularly imposing. He did not inspire fear, nor was he unfit to be a ruler. Fundamentally a good person, but indulged due to his upbringing as a daimyō. He inherited the prestigious Shimazu family's traditional spirit, making him quite stubborn and hard to deal with, but he was educated. His mind, trained in Chinese classics, made him quite difficult to subdue." He also shared similar sentiments in Waseda Seidan.

8.2. Criticism and Controversy

Despite his crucial role in paving the way for the Meiji Restoration, Hisamitsu's conservative ideology and actions attracted criticism and controversy. His opposition to the rapid, radical reforms implemented by the new Meiji government placed him at odds with many of the Restoration's architects. His symbolic protest against the Abolition of the Han System by setting off fireworks at his residence was the sole instance of overt resistance from a former daimyō, highlighting his deep-seated dissatisfaction with the centralization of power and the dismantling of the old order.

His insistence on maintaining traditional customs, such as his refusal to cut his topknot and his continued wearing of a sword after the Haitōrei (Decree Banning Swords), was seen by some as an obstruction to the national modernization efforts. Furthermore, his lifelong personal and political friction with Saigō Takamori, a key figure of the Restoration and advocate for social change, reflects a broader ideological conflict. Hisamitsu's persistent belief that "Saigō was deceived by Ōkubo" after their deaths suggests his inability to fully reconcile with the progressive shifts and the figures who drove them, viewing their actions through the lens of a traditionalist who felt betrayed by the direction of the new state. His legacy remains that of a powerful conservative who, despite being instrumental in overthrowing the old regime, resisted many of the subsequent changes that laid the foundation for modern Japan.

9.1. Family Relationships

Hisamitsu was the fifth son of Shimazu Narioki, the 10th lord of Satsuma. His half-brother, Shimazu Nariakira, was the 11th lord. Hisamitsu's son, Shimazu Tadayoshi, became the 12th and last lord of Satsuma.

He had one principal wife and one concubine, and many children:

• Principal Wife**: Shimazu Chiyoko (島津千百子_{Shimazu Chiyoko}^Japanese), his cousin and daughter of Shimazu Tadakimi of the Shigetomi-Shimazu family. She was born in 1821 and passed away on June 22, 1847.
  • First Daughter: Otsu (於儔_Otsu^Japanese) (born 1837, died 1837)
  • Second Daughter: Otsada (於定_Otsada^Japanese) (born 1838, died 1867), wife of Shimazu Hisashizu. It should be noted that while some fictional works, such as Tomiko Miyao's Tenshō-in Atsuhime, portray Otsada as Otetsu's younger sister, this is historically inaccurate.
  • Third Daughter: Otetsu (於哲_Otetsu^Japanese) (born 1839, died 1862), wife of Irikiin Kimihiko. Otetsu was once considered a candidate for consort to Tokugawa Iesada, but Shimazu Nariakira ultimately chose Ichi (later Tenshō-in), daughter of Shimazu Tadatake, instead.
  • First Son: Shimazu Tadayoshi (島津忠義_{Shimazu Tadayoshi}^Japanese) (1840-1897), the 12th and last daimyō of Satsuma Domain.
  • Second Son: Shimazu Hisaharu (島津久治_{Shimazu Hisaharu}^Japanese) (1842-1886), adopted into the Miyanojō Shimazu family.
  • Third Son: Kanetsugu (包次郎_Kanetsugu^Japanese) (born 1842, died 1843)
  • Fourth Daughter: Okan (於寛_Okan^Japanese) (born 1843, died 1862), wife of Kiire Hisahiro.
  • Fourth Son: Shimazu Uzuhiko (島津珍彦_{Shimazu Uzuhiko}^Japanese) (1847-1915), adopted into the Shigetomi Shimazu family.
  • Fifth Son: Shimazu Tadakata (島津忠欽_{Shimazu Tadakata}^Japanese) (1849-1889), adopted into the Imaizumi Shimazu family.
• Concubine**: Yamasaki Takeko (山崎武良子_{Yamasaki Takeko}^Japanese)
  • Fifth Daughter: Oyuki (於郷_Oyuki^Japanese) (born 1849, died 1850)
  • Sixth Son: Shimazu Tadatsune (島津忠経_{Shimazu Tadatsune}^Japanese) (born 1851, died 1881)
  • Seventh Son: Shimazu Tadatsugu (島津忠済_{Shimazu Tadatsugu}^Japanese) (1859-1926), succeeded Hisamitsu as head of the Tamari-Shimazu Ducal family.
  • Seventh Daughter: Otsu (於住_Otsu^Japanese) (born 1857, died 1858)
  • Eighth Daughter: Otoshi (於俊_Otoshi^Japanese) (born 1859, died 1875)
  • Eighth Son: Hōnosuke (芳之進_Hōnosuke^Japanese) (born 1860, died 1862)
  • Ninth Daughter: Otami (於民_Otami^Japanese) (born 1865, died 1866)

  Hisamitsu also had two adopted daughters:

  • Tomiko (富子_Tomiko^Japanese) (born 1862, died 1936), biological daughter of Date Munetoku, became the wife of Prince Kitashirakawa Yoshihisa.
  • Itsuko (輯子_Itsuko^Japanese) (born 1864, died 1928), biological daughter of Takeuchi Harunori, became the wife of Sanada Yukitami.

9.2. Ancestry and Genealogy

Shimazu Hisamitsu's direct ancestors were:

• 1. Prince Shimazu Hisamitsu
• 2. Shimazu Narioki, 10th Lord of Satsuma (1791-1859)
• 3. Okada Yura (1795-1866), concubine of Shimazu Narioki
• 4. Shimazu Narinobu, 9th Lord of Satsuma (1774-1841)
• 5. Suzuki, concubine of Shimazu Narinobu
• 6. Okada Toshitake
• 8. Shimazu Shigehide, 8th Lord of Satsuma (1745-1833)
• 9. Tsutsumi Shunkōin (1747-1811), concubine of Shimazu Shigehide
• 10. Suzuki Katsunori

Through his descendants, Shimazu Hisamitsu is connected to the modern Imperial House of Japan:

• His seventh son, Shimazu Tadatsugu, had a daughter named Shimazu Chikako (俔子_Chikako^Japanese).
• Chikako married Prince Kuni Kuniyoshi.
• Their daughter, Princess Nagako (良子女王_Nagako-joō^Japanese), became Empress Kōjun (香淳皇后_{Kōjun Kōgō}^Japanese), the wife of Emperor Shōwa (Hirohito).
• Empress Kōjun and Emperor Shōwa were the parents of Emperor Akihito, who is Hisamitsu's great-great-grandson. Emperor Akihito is the father of the present Emperor, Naruhito.

The intricate Shimazu family tree extends further through various branch families, including the Shigetomi, Miyanojō, Imaizumi, and Tamari Shimazu houses, all of which Hisamitsu's sons either inherited or founded.