Saverio Mercadante

1.1. Early life and education

Mercadante was born illegitimately, likely in Altamura, near Bari in the Apulia region of Italy. His exact birth date and place remain uncertain, with baptism records indicating either 17 September 1795 in Altamura or 26 June 1797 in Naples. He initially received musical instruction from his half-brother before entering the San Sebastiano Conservatory in Naples in 1808. There, he studied various instruments including the flute and violin, and began his composition studies from 1813 onwards. By 1817, Mercadante was appointed conductor of the conservatory's orchestra, a role that led him to compose numerous symphonies and concertos for various instruments, including six flute concertos between 1818 and 1819. The renowned opera composer Gioachino Rossini famously remarked to the conservatory Director, Niccolò Antonio Zingarelli, "My compliments, Maestro - your young pupil Mercadante begins where we finish," acknowledging Mercadante's exceptional early talent.

1.2. Early career and operatic debut

Rossini's encouragement was pivotal in guiding Mercadante towards opera composition. His first opera, L'apoteosi d'Ercole_{The Apotheosis of Hercules}^Italian, premiered at Naples' Teatro San Carlo between 1819 and 1820. He achieved considerable success with his second opera, Violenza e costanza, ossia I falsi monetari (Violence and Constancy, or The Counterfeiters), which debuted in 1820. His reputation further solidified with his Milan debut at the Teatro alla Scala with Elisa e Claudio, ossia L'amore protetto dall'amicizia (Elisa and Claudio, or Love Protected by Friendship), premiered on 30 October 1821. This work was a significant triumph, making Mercadante a recognized name across Italy and enjoying occasional revivals into the 20th century. In 1821, his opera Maria Stuarda, regina di Scozia (Mary Stuart, Queen of Scotland), based on Friedrich Schiller's play, garnered attention as a modern work. During this early period, Mercadante also notably featured the castrato Giovanni Battista Velluti as the protagonist in his operas Andronico (1822) and Alfonso ed Elisa (1823).

1.3. European period and stylistic evolution

Following Rossini's move to France in 1823, Mercadante was initially appointed as the resident composer at the San Carlo Theatre by impresario Domenico Barbaia. However, this contract was soon dissolved, leading Mercadante to accept a commission for the Theater am Kärntnertor in Vienna. Though his works did not achieve significant success in Vienna, Mercadante continued to travel, working in various European cities including Madrid, Cádiz, and Lisbon, where he served as music director of the Italian opera. During this period, he was influenced by the folk music of the Iberian Peninsula.

A pivotal moment occurred with the premiere of Caritea, regina di Spagna, ossia La morte di Don Alfonso re di Portogallo (Caritea, Queen of Spain, or The Death of Don Alfonso, King of Portugal) at Venice's Teatro La Fenice in 1826. This opera was a tremendous success, and its aria Chi per la patria muor_{He who dies for the homeland}^Italian became an unofficial anthem of the Risorgimento, the Italian unification movement. It was sung during the 1831 Bologna uprising and by the Bandiera brothers in 1844, underscoring Mercadante's connection to the era's patriotic sentiments.

Mercadante returned to Italy in 1831, signing a contract with the Genoa opera house in 1832. He married Sofia Gambaro in 1833 and was appointed choir director in Novara, where he composed church music until 1840. In 1836, Rossini invited him to Paris to compose I briganti (The Brigands) for a quartet of renowned singers, including Giulia Grisi and Luigi Lablache. While I briganti was not a success, Mercadante's time in Paris exposed him to the emerging French Grand Opera style, particularly the works of Giacomo Meyerbeer and Fromental Halévy, with the latter's La Juive leaving a strong impression.

These experiences instigated a "reform movement" in Mercadante's compositional style, emphasizing greater dramatic effect. This shift was also influenced by the 1836 publication of Giuseppe Mazzini's manifesto, Filosofia della musica, which advocated for a new approach to music. Mercadante's new style featured varied forms, richer and more colorful orchestration, the introduction of grand choruses, and a move away from excessive vocal ornamentation towards a more dramatic vocal line.

The first major work reflecting these reforms was Il giuramento (The Oath), which premiered at Milan's Teatro alla Scala on 11 March 1837. This opera is widely considered one of Mercadante's finest and was notably innovative for being the first successful Italian opera to deny the prima donna her traditional right to a final solo scene. Mercadante continued this revolutionary approach with works like Elena da Feltre, premiered in January 1839. In a letter to Francesco Florimo, Mercadante articulated his new principles: "varied forms, cabalettas banished, crescendos out, vocal lines simplified, fewer repeats, more originality in the cadences, proper regard paid to the drama, orchestration rich but not so as to swamp the voices, no long solos in the ensembles... not much bass drum, and a lot less brass band." Critics praised Elena da Feltre for its harmonic daring and subtle, original orchestration, drawing comparisons to Verdi and recognizing it as a surprising anticipation of the latter's mature style. While these reforms temporarily placed Mercadante at the forefront of Italian composers, he was soon surpassed by Giovanni Pacini's Saffo and several of Verdi's early operas, such as Ernani.

1.4. Director of the Naples Conservatory and final years

In 1840, Mercadante was appointed director of the Naples Conservatory, a position he held until his death. Although his compositional output slowed due to the demands of his directorship and his declining eyesight, he continued to create significant works. Notable later operas include Orazi e Curiazi (Horatii and Curiatii), which achieved considerable success.

After the establishment of the Kingdom of Italy, Mercadante composed pieces honoring national figures such as Vittorio Emanuele II and Giuseppe Garibaldi, further solidifying his connection to the unification movement. From 1862 or 1863, Mercadante suffered from almost total blindness, yet he persevered, dictating all his compositions. His final theatrical work was Pelagio, premiered in 1857. Mercadante outlived most of the major opera composers of the first half of the 19th century, dying in Naples on 17 December 1870.

2.1. Operas

Mercadante composed approximately 60 operas throughout his career. His works represent a significant transition in Italian opera, bridging the bel canto era of Rossini, Bellini, and Donizetti with the dramatic realism of Verdi.

His early successes, such as Elisa e Claudio, established his reputation. Later, his "reform operas" introduced innovative features that moved away from the conventions of bel canto, emphasizing dramatic integrity, formal variety, and enriched orchestration. Key reform operas include Il giuramento, which daringly removed the traditional solo finale for the prima donna, and Elena da Feltre, lauded for its harmonic complexity and orchestral subtlety. Another successful work was Orazi e Curiazi. While many of his operas were widely performed throughout the 19th century, some even surpassing the performance numbers of Verdi's early works during the same period, they largely fell into obscurity after his death.

The following table lists Mercadante's operatic works:

2.2. Instrumental works

While primarily known as an opera composer during his lifetime, Mercadante also composed a significant number of instrumental works. His extensive output includes approximately 60 symphonies, 20 concertos, as well as various orchestral and chamber pieces. This substantial body of instrumental music can be attributed to his lifelong fascination with orchestration and his position as Director of the Naples Conservatory for the last three decades of his life.

Among his instrumental compositions, his concertos and sonatas for instruments like the flute and clarinet are particularly notable. In contemporary classical music, his instrumental works, especially his five flute concertos, have gained renewed popularity and are often more frequently performed and remembered than his operas. The Concerto in E minor for flute and string orchestra (often referred to as his Second Flute Concerto) is considered his most famous instrumental work today, notably recorded by the French soloist Jean-Pierre Rampal.

3.1. Opera reforms and influence on Verdi

Mercadante played a pivotal role in reforming Italian operatic forms and styles, serving as an important transitional figure between the bel canto era and the rise of Giuseppe Verdi. His "reform movement" was characterized by a heightened emphasis on dramatic effect, a simplification of vocal lines by reducing excessive ornamentation, and a richer, more varied orchestration. He sought to create a more integrated dramatic structure, moving away from the rigid succession of arias and ensembles, and incorporating more sophisticated harmonic and formal elements.

These innovations directly influenced subsequent composers, most notably Giuseppe Verdi. Mercadante's commitment to prioritizing the drama and utilizing the orchestra as an integral part of the narrative laid groundwork that Verdi would further develop. For instance, Mercadante's opera La vestale (1840) is believed to have significantly influenced Verdi's masterpiece Aida, particularly in its grand choral writing and dramatic scope. Although Mercadante's operas eventually became considered outdated after Verdi established his dominant position, his reforms were crucial in paving the way for the dramatic intensity and structural coherence that became hallmarks of later 19th-century Italian opera.

3.2. Modern re-evaluation

In the decades following his death in 1870, Mercadante's extensive musical output was largely forgotten. However, since World War II, there has been a gradual resurgence of interest in his works. His operas have experienced occasional revivals on stage and have been increasingly recorded, allowing a wider audience to rediscover his contributions.

Beyond his operatic output, there is growing recognition of his instrumental works. His flute concertos, in particular, have gained considerable popularity among modern concert flautists, with the E minor concerto being a staple of the repertoire. This renewed attention to his instrumental compositions has contributed to a more comprehensive re-evaluation of Mercadante's place in music history, acknowledging his significant, albeit often overlooked, role in shaping 19th-century Italian music.