Robert Chambers (publisher, born 1802)

1.1. Childhood and Education

Robert Chambers was born on July 10, 1802, in Peebles, a small town in the Scottish Borders that had seen little change for centuries, largely inhabited by weavers and laborers living in thatched cottages. He was the second of six children born to Jean Gibson and James Chambers, a cotton manufacturer. Their family home, a slate-roofed house built by his paternal grandfather as a wedding gift, also served as the family's workshop on the ground floor.

From a young age, Robert developed a profound interest in literature, fostered by a small circulating library run by Alexander Elder in Peebles. His literary curiosity was further ignited when he discovered a complete set of the fourth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica hidden in a chest in the attic. He eagerly read this encyclopedia for many years, later recalling a "profound thankfulness that such a convenient collection of human knowledge existed, and that here it was spread out like a well-plenished table before me." His elder brother, William, observed that for Robert, "the acquisition of knowledge was with him the highest of earthly enjoyments."

Robert attended local schools, including one directed by James Gray, where he learned reading, writing, and arithmetic. He also attended grammar school, studying Latin and Ancient Greek along with English composition. Though he found the schooling uninspiring due to its conventional methods and the prevalence of corporal punishment and bullying, he compensated for these shortcomings by dedicating himself to self-study at the bookseller's.

Both Robert and William were born with six fingers on each hand and six toes on each foot. While his parents attempted surgical corrections for this abnormality, William's operation was successful, but Robert was left partially lame. This physical limitation often kept him indoors, where he contentedly immersed himself in his studies and books, further deepening his intellectual pursuits.

1.2. Family Background and Early Struggles

Robert's education continued for several years beyond William's, as he was initially destined for the ministry. However, at the age of fifteen, this intended career path was abandoned. The sudden emergence of the power loom severely impacted his father James Chambers' cotton manufacturing business, forcing its closure. James then transitioned to being a draper. During this difficult period, James socialized with French prisoners of war on parole in Peebles and unfortunately extended a significant amount of credit to them. When these exiles were abruptly transferred, James Chambers was compelled to declare bankruptcy.

In 1813, the family relocated to Edinburgh. Robert continued his education at the High School, while William became a bookseller's apprentice. At the age of sixteen in 1818, Robert embarked on his own entrepreneurial venture as a bookstall-keeper on Leith Walk. His initial inventory consisted only of a few old books belonging to his father, amounting to approximately 13 ft of shelf space and valued at no more than a few pounds. By the end of his first year, the value of his stock had modestly increased to 12 GBP, marking the gradual beginning of his success.

2.1. Initial Publishing Ventures

While Robert diligently built his bookselling business, his elder brother William expanded his own operations by acquiring a homemade printing press. William began publishing pamphlets and creating his own typefaces, demonstrating an early entrepreneurial spirit. Soon, the two brothers decided to combine their strengths, with Robert focusing on writing and William on printing.

Their first joint venture was a magazine series titled The Kaleidoscope, or Edinburgh Literary Amusement. This periodical, sold for 0.03 GBP, was issued fortnightly between October 6, 1821, and January 12, 1822. This initial collaboration marked the beginning of a successful partnership that would eventually lead to the establishment of one of Scotland's most significant publishing houses.

2.2. Early Literary Works

Robert Chambers' early literary output demonstrated his profound interest in Scottish history, folklore, and culture. Following The Kaleidoscope, the brothers published Illustrations of the Author of Waverley in 1822, which provided character sketches believed to be inspirations for figures in Walter Scott's fictional works. The last book printed on William's old press was Robert's Traditions of Edinburgh (1824), a work born from his deep enthusiasm for the city's history and antiquities.

He followed this with Walks in Edinburgh (1825), Popular Rhymes of Scotland (1826), and Picture of Scotland (1826). His prolific writing continued with five volumes of Scottish history, contributing to Constable's Miscellany, and in 1832, he compiled the Gazetteer of Scotland with his brother William. These early works earned him the respect and personal friendship of Walter Scott. After Scott's death, Robert honored his friend by writing a Life of Sir Walter Scott (1832). Additionally, Robert authored a comprehensive History of the Rebellions in Scotland from 1638 to 1745, spanning five volumes (1828), and numerous other works detailing Scottish traditions and historical events.

4.1. Establishment and Growth

The formal establishment of the W. & R. Chambers publishing firm began with the launch of a highly successful weekly publication. At the start of 1832, Robert's brother William initiated Chambers's Edinburgh Journal, which rapidly achieved widespread circulation. Initially, Robert was solely a contributor to the journal. However, after the publication of fourteen volumes, he became a joint editor alongside William. His deep involvement and collaborative efforts were instrumental to the journal's sustained success and growth.

The partnership solidified into a formal book publishing firm, W. & R. Chambers Publishers. At the same time, Robert continued to manage his own bookshop and circulating library at 48 Hanover Street, alongside his younger brother James Chambers, while William operated his shop from 47 Broughton Street. During this period, Robert resided close to his shop, at 27 Elder Street, a building that was later demolished in the 1960s to improve access to the Edinburgh Bus Station.

4.2. Major Publications and Editorial Work

The W. & R. Chambers firm became known for its ambitious and influential publications, many of which were conceived, edited, or largely authored by Robert Chambers himself. Among his most significant contributions were the Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen, a four-volume work published between 1832 and 1835 in Glasgow, and the Cyclopædia of English Literature (1844). The Cyclopædia was particularly noted for its carefully selected extracts from leading authors of every period, presented within a biographical and critical historical context of English literature.

Another major undertaking was the Life and Works of Robert Burns, a four-volume set published in 1851. For this work, Chambers conducted diligent and laborious original investigations, gathering many previously unrecorded facts directly from the poet's sister, Mrs. Begg. Generously, the entire profits from this work were devoted to Mrs. Begg's benefit. His other important works included Ancient Sea Margins (1848), Domestic Annals of Scotland (1859-1861), and his final monumental project, The Book of Days (two volumes, 1862-1864).

The brothers also oversaw the production of Chambers's Encyclopaedia (1859-1868), with Dr. Andrew Findlater serving as its editor. Robert Chambers' extensive editorial work and literary contributions were central to the firm's reputation and its mission to disseminate knowledge widely.

5.1. Background and Anonymous Authorship

During the 1830s, Robert Chambers developed a profound interest in the rapidly expanding field of geology, leading to his election as a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1840 and the Geological Society of London in 1844. These affiliations connected him with numerous prominent scientific figures, including Charles Bell, George Combe, Dr. Andrew Combe, Dr. Neil Arnott, Professor Edward Forbes, and Dr. Samuel Brown, with whom he discussed speculative theories on physiology and mental philosophy. His geological studies, including his first geological book Ancient Sea Margins (1848), directly influenced his most famous and controversial work.

In 1844, while recuperating from depression at his holiday home in St Andrews, Chambers dictated Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation to his wife, Anne Kirkwood. The act of composing Vestiges is believed to have served a therapeutic purpose. Chambers had also been an enthusiastic phrenologist in Edinburgh during the 1830s, a background that influenced his thinking. The book quickly became an international bestseller and a powerful public influence, following George Combe's Constitution of Man (1828) and notably preceding Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species by fifteen years.

The decision to publish Vestiges anonymously was deliberate and critical. While literary anonymity was somewhat common in journalism at the time, it was rare in scientific writing, where authors typically sought credit for their discoveries. Chambers' anonymity stemmed from the radical nature of the book's arguments and his desire to protect his and his brother's publishing firm from potential scandal and backlash. To maintain secrecy, Chambers initially disclosed his authorship to only four individuals: his wife Anne, his brother William, his friend Alexander Ireland of Manchester (who managed the publication arrangements), and George Combe's nephew, Robert Cox. Two years later, Dr. Neil Arnott was also brought into this inner circle. All correspondence regarding the book passed through Ireland, and all letters and manuscripts were meticulously transcribed by Mrs. Chambers to prevent recognition of Robert's handwriting, underscoring the extreme caution taken to conceal his identity.

5.2. Content and Core Arguments

Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation presented a sweeping, developmental view of the cosmos, integrating stellar evolution with the progressive transmutation of species. Chambers' work was unique in its attempt to synthesize disparate scientific fields into a unified "history of creation." He explicitly stated in his concluding chapter, "The book, as far as I am aware, is the first attempt to connect the natural sciences in a history of creation."

Although his theory posited progressive change over time, Chambers was careful to distance his ideas from those of the French naturalist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, whose evolutionary theories had been largely discredited among intellectuals. Chambers critically noted that Lamarck's "whole notion is obviously so inadequate to account for the rise of the organic kingdoms, that we only can place it with pity among the follies of the wise." This distinction was crucial, as evolutionary or "development" theories were generally unpopular at the time, except among political radicals and materialists. Chambers sought to present a more scientifically rigorous and divinely guided process of development, rather than a purely materialistic one, to avoid the criticisms leveled against Lamarck.

5.3. Reception and Controversy

Robert Chambers was well aware that his treatment of the subject in Vestiges would likely provoke a storm of criticism, and indeed it did. By suggesting that God might not actively sustain the existing natural and social hierarchies, the book was perceived as a direct threat to the established social order. It quickly became ammunition for Chartists and revolutionaries, who saw in its ideas a justification for social and political change.

Anglican clergymen and naturalists vigorously attacked the book. The prominent geologist Adam Sedgwick warned of "ruin and confusion in such a creed," predicting that if adopted by the working classes, it would "undermine the whole moral and social fabric" and bring "discord and deadly mischief in its train." At a British Association for the Advancement of Science meeting in Oxford in May 1847, Chambers delivered a talk on ancient beaches where his conclusions were reportedly "roughly handled" by leading scientific figures like William Buckland, Henry De la Beche, Adam Sedgwick, Roderick Murchison, and Charles Lyell. Lyell himself later admitted that he did so deliberately to demonstrate that "reasonings in the style of the author of the Vestiges would not be tolerated among scientific men." The following Sunday, Samuel Wilberforce, the Bishop of Oxford, delivered a scathing sermon at St. Mary's Church on "the wrong way of doing science," clearly targeting Chambers. The church, "crowded to suffocation" with scientists, heard jibes directed at the "half-learned" who were seduced by the "foul temptation" of speculation, seeking a self-sustaining universe in a "mocking spirit of unbelief," and failing to understand "the modes of the Creator's acting" or to meet the responsibilities of a gentleman. Chambers condemned this as an attempt to stifle progressive thought, though some observers believed he must have felt like a martyr.

In stark contrast to the widespread condemnation, many Quakers and Unitarians embraced the book. The Unitarian physiologist William Benjamin Carpenter praised it as "a very beautiful and a very interesting book" and even assisted Chambers in correcting later editions. Despite the initial hostile reception, the book became a sensation, quickly going through multiple new editions. Vestiges played a crucial role in bringing the discussion of evolution from specialized academic circles and the "gutter press" into the drawing rooms of respectable society, fostering widespread public debate on the subject.

The controversy also had direct personal consequences for Chambers. In the autumn of 1848, he was put forward as a candidate for the administrative position of Lord Provost of Edinburgh. However, this timing was particularly unfortunate, as adversaries seized upon the swirling allegations that he was the author of the much-reviled Vestiges to discredit his character. His brother William, in his posthumous Memoir of Robert Chambers, only briefly mentioned Vestiges in relation to this affair, stating that Robert "might have been well assured that a rumor to the effect that he was the author of 'Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation' would be used to his disadvantage, and that anything he might say on the subject would be unavailing." Faced with the relentless accusations and the potential damage to his reputation, Robert withdrew his candidacy in disgust.

6.1. Geological Explorations and Other Scholarly Interests

Building on his keen interest in geology, Robert Chambers embarked on extensive geological explorations during his later life. He toured Scandinavia and Canada specifically for geological research, publishing the findings of these travels in several works. These included Tracings of the North of Europe (1851) and Tracings in Iceland and the Faroe Islands (1856), which documented his observations and insights from these regions. His earlier work, Ancient Sea Margins (1848), also showcased his commitment to geological study.

6.2. Social and Public Engagements

Beyond his scientific and literary pursuits, Robert Chambers was involved in various social and public engagements that reflected his commitment to progressive thought. In 1851, he was part of a group of writers who joined the publisher John Chapman in revitalizing the Westminster Review. This journal served as an important platform for free thought and reform, actively spreading ideas related to evolutionism and broader intellectual advancements.

Chambers also maintained a notable personal passion for golf. He was elected an honorary member of the Musselburgh Golf Club (now Royal Musselburgh Golf Club) on September 14, 1833. His son, who followed him into the publishing business, inherited his father's interest in the sport and became a renowned player, achieving the title of Champion Golfer in 1858 as a member of the Bruntsfield Links Golfing Society.

6.3. Last Major Work: The Book of Days

The Book of Days was Robert Chambers' final major publication and is considered by many to be his most elaborate and comprehensive work. This miscellany of popular antiquities was compiled in connection with the calendar, offering a wealth of historical, folkloric, and anecdotal information for each day of the year. The immense and demanding labor involved in compiling this extensive two-volume work, published between 1862 and 1864, is widely believed to have significantly contributed to his declining health.

Despite the arduous nature of its creation, The Book of Days garnered him significant accolades. Two years before its publication, the University of St Andrews conferred upon him the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws (LL.D.), recognizing his outstanding contributions to literature and knowledge. He was also elected a member of the prestigious Athenaeum Club in London, further cementing his distinguished status in intellectual circles.

7.1. Death and Burial

Robert Chambers died on March 17, 1871, in St Andrews, Scotland. In accordance with his wishes, he was buried in the Cathedral burial ground, within the interior of the old Church of St. Regulus. His grave is located against the southern wall of the structure attaching the roofless section, east of the tower. To honor his memory, his brother William erected a memorial window for Robert in St Giles Cathedral in Edinburgh, placed next to a larger window dedicated to William himself, at the time of his restoration of the cathedral. Both windows are situated in the northern transept of the cathedral.

7.2. Posthumous Revelation of Authorship

A year after Robert's death, his brother William published a biography titled Memoir of Robert Chambers; With Autobiographical Reminiscences of William Chambers. However, William deliberately omitted any mention of Robert's authorship of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation. This decision was made to uphold the long-standing secret and protect his brother's reputation from the lingering controversy associated with the book. Milton Millhauser, in his 1959 book Just Before Darwin, criticized William's memoir for this omission, stating that despite its intelligence and sympathy, such suppressions "inevitably produced a distorted picture." William's memoir did include some of Robert's autobiographical reminiscences of his early life, with William providing the rest of the narration.

The truth about the authorship of Vestiges was finally made public in 1884. Alexander Ireland, the trusted friend who had handled the original anonymous publication, issued the 12th edition of Vestiges with Robert Chambers explicitly listed as the author. Ireland included a preface detailing the account of its authorship, believing that there was no longer any reason to conceal the author's name. This revelation allowed Robert Chambers to be posthumously recognized for his pioneering and controversial contribution to the public discourse on evolution.

8.1. Principal Published Works

• The Kaleidoscope, or Edinburgh Literary Amusement. October 1821 - January 1822.
• Illustrations of the Author of Waverley. 1822.
• Traditions of Edinburgh. 1824.
• Notices of the Most Remarkable Fires with have Occurred in Edinburgh. 1825.
• Walks in Edinburgh. 1825.
• Popular Rhymes of Scotland. 1826.
• Picture of Scotland. 1827.
• History of the Rebellion of 1745. 1828.
• Scottish Ballads. 1829.
• Scottish Songs. 1829.
• The Picture of Stirling. 1830.
• Life of King James I. 1830.
• Gazetteer of Scotland (with William Chambers). 1832.
• Scottish Jests and Anecdotes. 1832.
• Life of Sir Walter Scott. 1832.
• History of Scotland. 1832.
• Reekiana, or Minor Antiquities of Edinburgh. 1833.
• Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen. 1833-1835.
• Life and Works of Burns (based on Currie's edition). 1834.
• Jacobite Memoirs of the Rebellion. 1834.
• History of the English Language and Literature. 1835.
• Poems. 1835.
• The Land of Burns (with Professor John Wilson). 1840.
• Cyclopaedia of English Literature (with Robert Carruthers). 1840.
• History of the Rebellion of 1745. 1840.
• Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation (published anonymously). 1844.
• Twelve Romantic Scottish Ballads. 1844.
• Explanations: A Sequel (published anonymously). 1845.
• Select Writings of Robert Chambers, in seven volumes. 1847.
• Ancient Sea Margins. 1848.
• Tracings of the North of Europe. 1851.
• Life and Works of Robert Burns. 1851.
• Tracings of Iceland and the Faroe Islands. 1856.
• Domestic Annals of Scotland. 1859-1861.
• Sketch of the History of Edinburgh Theatre Royal. 1859.
• Memoirs of a Banking House, by Sir William Forbes (ed. R. Chambers). 1859.
• Edinburgh Papers. 1861.
• Songs of Scotland Prior to Burns. 1862.
• Preface to Daniel Dunglas Home: Incidents in My Life, first series. 1863.
• The Book of Days. 1864.
• Life of Smollett. 1867.
• Traditions of Edinburgh. 1868.
• The Threiplands of Fingask. 1880.

8.2. Unpublished Manuscripts

• Life and Preachings of Jesus Christ, from the Evangelists.
• A Catechism for the Young.
• Private Prayers and Meditations.
• Antiquarian Papers.
• Several papers on spiritualism.

8.3. Edited and Contributed Works

• Chambers's Edinburgh Journal. 1832 onwards.
• Chambers's Information for the People. 1833-1835.
• Chambers's Educational Course. 1835 onwards.