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Reginald Pole

Reginald Pole, English cardinal and last Catholic Archbishop of Canterbury, led Mary I's Catholic restoration amid the English Reformation, marked by controversy.

1. Early Life and Education

Reginald Pole's early life was defined by his aristocratic lineage and a comprehensive education that laid the foundation for his intellectual and theological pursuits.

1.1. Childhood and Family Background

Reginald Pole was born at Stourton Castle, Staffordshire, England, on 12 March 1500. He was the third son of Sir Richard Pole and Margaret Pole, 8th Countess of Salisbury. His maternal grandparents were George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence, and Isabel Neville, Duchess of Clarence. This lineage made him a great-nephew of kings Edward IV and Richard III, and a great-grandson of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, firmly connecting him to the House of Plantagenet and making him a distant cousin of the reigning Tudor monarchy, including Henry VIII. His mother, Margaret Pole, was also a significant figure, serving as a guardian and caretaker for Mary Tudor during her childhood.

1.2. Education and Intellectual Development

Pole's early education varied, with accounts suggesting he studied at Sheen Priory, Christchurch, Canterbury, or the Godalming Charterhouse School. In 1512, at the age of twelve, he matriculated at Magdalen College, Oxford. At Oxford, he received instruction from prominent scholars such as William Latimer, his principal tutor, and Thomas Linacre, who taught him between 1518 and 1520. He graduated with a BA degree on 27 June 1515, at the age of fifteen. His education was significantly supported by Henry VIII, who provided him with a pension of 12 GBP in 1512, renewed the following year, and a stipend of 100 GBP in 1521.

In 1521, with financial assistance from King Henry VIII, Pole continued his studies at the University of Padua in Italy. This period was crucial for his intellectual development, as he engaged with leading figures of the Renaissance. Among those he met were Pietro Bembo, Gianmatteo Giberti, Jacopo Sadoleto, Gianpietro Carafa (who would later become Pope Paul IV), Rodolfo Pio, Otto Truchsess, Stanislaus Hosius, Cristoforo Madruzzo, Giovanni Morone, Pier Paolo Vergerio the younger, Peter Martyr Vermigli, and Vettor Soranzo. Notably, the last three were eventually condemned as heretics by the Catholic Church, and Vermigli, as a widely known Protestant theologian, significantly contributed to the English Reformation. Pole's studies in Padua were also partly financed by his election as a fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, with Henry VIII covering more than half of the costs.

Upon his return to England in July 1526, escorted by Thomas Lupset, Pole received further ecclesiastical appointments. He was appointed prebend of Knaresborough in York Minster on 22 April 1527, and on 25 July 1527, he was presented with a canonry in Exeter Cathedral, being declared Dean just four days later. He also held the deanery of Wimborne Minster and was a prebendary of Salisbury. Although not yet ordained a priest, he held several other livings. In October 1529, he was sent to Paris to represent Henry VIII, probing the opinions of theologians at the Sorbonne regarding the annulment of Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon. He returned to England in the summer of 1530, residing for a period in John Colet's former house at Sheen.

2. Relationship with Henry VIII and Exile

Reginald Pole's relationship with Henry VIII underwent a dramatic transformation, evolving from one of royal patronage to profound conflict, which ultimately led to Pole's self-imposed exile and the tragic persecution of his family.

2.1. Early Career and Conflict with Henry VIII

Pole's political influence became more evident by November 1528. By October 1529, his mission to Paris was specifically to secure a favorable opinion from university doctors on Henry VIII's annulment. Henry VIII, seeking support for his desire to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, offered Pole the prestigious Archbishopric of York or the Diocese of Winchester. Pole, however, was a devout theologian who believed in the sanctity of the marriage and the authority of the Roman Church. In May or June 1531, he provided Henry with an analysis highlighting the political difficulties and potential dangers, particularly concerning the succession, that a divorce would bring.

Pole's principled refusal to support the annulment led to a decisive break with the King in May 1536. He had previously warned of the dangers of Henry's marriage to Anne Boleyn five years earlier. In 1532, he had returned to Padua and received his last English benefice in December of that year, the benefice of vicar of Piddletown, Dorset, which he held until around January 1536. During this period, Eustace Chapuys, the imperial ambassador to England, even suggested to Emperor Charles V that Pole marry Henry's daughter Mary to combine their dynastic claims, a suggestion communicated through Pole's brother Geoffrey Pole. At this time, Reginald Pole was not yet definitively in Holy Orders.

The final rupture occurred when Thomas Cromwell, Cuthbert Tunstall, and Thomas Starkey, on behalf of Henry, posed questions to Pole. Pole responded by sending the King a copy of his published treatise Pro ecclesiasticae unitatis defensione (A Defence of the Unity of the Church). This work was not merely a theological reply but a strong denunciation of the King's policies, refuting Henry's position on marrying his brother Arthur's widow and unequivocally denying the royal supremacy over the Church. Pole went further, urging the princes of Europe to depose Henry immediately. In response, Henry wrote to Pole's mother, Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury, who in turn sent her son a letter reproving him for his "folly."

2.2. Exile and Family Persecution

With Reginald Pole beyond his reach in exile, King Henry VIII retaliated against Pole's family, accusing them of treason in what became known as the Exeter Conspiracy. This act of vengeance severely impacted and ultimately destroyed the Pole family.

In August 1538, Sir Geoffrey Pole, who had been corresponding with Reginald, was arrested. His name emerged during the investigation of Henry Courtenay, 1st Marquess of Exeter, Henry VIII's first cousin and the Countess of Salisbury's first cousin once removed. Under interrogation by Thomas Cromwell, Sir Geoffrey confessed that his brother, Henry Pole, 1st Baron Montagu, and Exeter had both been involved in his correspondence with Reginald. Consequently, Montagu, Exeter, and Lady Salisbury were arrested in November 1538, along with other family members, on charges of treason. Despite Cromwell having previously acknowledged that they had "little offended save that he [Reginald Pole] is of their kin," they were committed to the Tower of London.

In January 1539, Sir Geoffrey was pardoned, but Montagu and Exeter were tried and executed for treason. Reginald Pole himself was attainted in absentia, meaning he was condemned without being present for trial. In May 1539, Montagu, Exeter, and Lady Salisbury were also attainted, resulting in the forfeiture of their lands-mostly in the South of England, conveniently located to assist any alleged invasion-and titles. Those still alive in the Tower were also sentenced to death, allowing the King to execute them at his will. As part of the evidence presented to support the Bill of Attainder, Cromwell produced a tunic bearing the Five Wounds of Christ, purported to show Lady Salisbury's support of traditional Catholicism. This item, suspiciously, came to light six months after her house and effects had already been searched upon her arrest, leading many to believe it was planted evidence.

Margaret Pole, Reginald's mother, endured two and a half years of harsh conditions in the Tower of London, held alongside her grandson (Montagu's son) and Exeter's son on the King's orders. In 1540, Cromwell himself fell from favor and was attainted and executed. Margaret Pole was finally executed in 1541, protesting her innocence until her last breath. Her execution was a highly publicized case, widely considered a grave miscarriage of justice both at the time and historically. The execution was particularly gruesome, botched by an inexperienced executioner who delivered nearly a dozen blows before she was finally killed. Reginald Pole famously declared that he would "never fear to call himself the son of a martyr." Approximately 350 years later, in 1886, Margaret Pole was beatified by Pope Leo XIII. Beyond Pole's hostile treatise, another significant factor fueling King Henry's brutality towards the Pole family was Margaret's status as one of the last surviving members of the House of Plantagenet. Under certain circumstances, her line of descent could have made Reginald-before he definitively entered the clergy-a potential contender for the throne itself.

3. Cardinalate and Papal Service

Reginald Pole's elevation to the cardinalate marked a new phase in his life, as he became a key figure in the Catholic Church's efforts to counter the Protestant Reformation, serving extensively as a papal legate and participating in crucial church councils and papal elections.

3.1. Appointment as Cardinal and Papal Legate

Despite his own objections, Reginald Pole, already a deacon, was created a cardinal by Pope Paul III on 22 December 1536. He was the fourth of five English cardinals during the first half of the sixteenth century, the others being Christopher Bainbridge, Thomas Wolsey, John Fisher, and William Petow. In February 1536 or 1537, he was appointed papal legate to England. Pope Paul III entrusted him with the task of organizing assistance for the Pilgrimage of Grace and related movements, which aimed to march on London to demand that Henry VIII replace his 'reformist' advisers with more traditional, Catholic minds. However, neither Francis I of France nor the Emperor supported this effort, and the English government even attempted to assassinate Pole. In 1539, Pole was dispatched to the Emperor to organize an embargo against England, a countermeasure he himself had previously warned Henry was possible.

Reginald Pole with Pope Paul III in a 1539 portrait by Perino del Vaga
Reginald Pole with Pope Paul III in a 1539 portrait by Perino del Vaga

3.2. Council of Trent and Papal Conclave

In 1542, Reginald Pole was appointed as one of the three papal legates tasked with presiding over the Council of Trent, a pivotal gathering of the Catholic Church for the Counter-Reformation. His role in skillfully managing the council was significant.

Following the death of Pope Paul III in 1549, Pole emerged as a prominent candidate in the papal conclave of 1549-50. At one point, he garnered 26 out of the 28 votes required to be elected Pope. However, his personal belief in justification by faith alone-a theological concept that had caused him problems at Trent-led to accusations of heretical crypto-Lutheranism during the conclave. Thomas Hoby, who was in Rome during the conclave, recorded that Pole failed to be elected "by the Cardinall of Ferrara his meanes the voice of manie cardinalls of the French partie, persuading them that Cardinal Pole was both Imperiall and also a verie Lutheran." This opposition, influenced by political and theological considerations, ultimately prevented his election.

4. Archbishop of Canterbury and Catholic Restoration

Reginald Pole's return to England under Queen Mary I marked a pivotal moment in his life, as he assumed the highest ecclesiastical office in England and spearheaded the restoration of Catholicism.

4.1. Return to England and Appointment as Archbishop

The death of Edward VI on 6 July 1553 and the subsequent accession of Mary I to the English throne hastened Pole's return from his long exile. He returned as a papal legate to England, a position he held until 1557, with the primary objective of guiding the kingdom back into the Catholic fold. However, Queen Mary I and Emperor Charles V delayed his arrival in England until 20 November 1554, due to concerns that Pole might oppose Mary's impending marriage to Charles's son, Philip of Spain.

It was only after the marriage had safely taken place that the English Parliament finally proceeded to repeal Pole's attainder on 22 November 1554. Pole formally opened his papal commission and presented his legatine credentials before Philip and Mary and the assembled members of Parliament at the Palace of Whitehall on 27 November 1554, delivering a notable oration. Among the dignitaries present was Stephen Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester and Lord Chancellor of England, who was the most prominent Catholic minister in England and instrumental in steering the restoration of Catholicism through Parliament in January 1555.

On 13 November 1555, Thomas Cranmer was officially deprived of the See of Canterbury. The Pope then promoted Pole to the rank of cardinal-priest and appointed him administrator of the See of Canterbury on 11 December 1555. Pole was finally ordained a priest on 20 March 1556 and consecrated a bishop two days later, on 22 March 1556, thereby becoming the Archbishop of Canterbury, an office he held until his death.

Reginald Pole as a cardinal
Reginald Pole as a cardinal

4.2. Role in Catholic Restoration

As papal legate and later Archbishop of Canterbury, Pole played a crucial role in the re-establishment of Catholic practices in England. He successfully negotiated a papal dispensation that allowed the new owners of lands confiscated during the Dissolution of the Monasteries to retain their properties. In return for this significant concession, Parliament then enabled the Revival of the Heresy Acts in January 1555. This revival reinstated former measures against heresy, specifically the letters patent of 1382 from Richard II, the Suppression of Heresy Act 1400 (2 Hen. 4. c. 15) of Henry IV, and the Suppression of Heresy Act 1414 (2 Hen. 5. Stat. 1. c. 7) of Henry V, all of which had been repealed under Henry VIII and Edward VI.

Beyond his religious duties, Pole effectively served as Queen Mary's chief minister and adviser. Many former enemies of the Catholic Church, including Cranmer, signed recantations affirming their belief in transubstantiation and papal supremacy. Despite these recantations, which should have absolved them under Mary's own revived Heresy Acts, the Queen remained unforgiving of their past responsibility for the annulment of her mother's marriage.

Beginning in 1555, Queen Mary authorized the burning of Protestants for heresy, leading to the execution of approximately 220 men and 60 women before her death in 1558. These events, known as the Marian persecutions, are seen by some historians as having inadvertently contributed to the ultimate victory of the English Reformation by generating public sympathy for the Protestant cause. While Pole's direct involvement in these heresy trials is a subject of historical debate, some accounts suggest he is "usually not blamed" for the campaign of burnings and was known for his gentleness and patience with those suspected of heresy. There is evidence that he favored a more lenient approach, viewing heretics as sinners rather than traitors, and urging leniency, conversion, and forgiveness; for instance, three condemned heretics from Bishop Bonner's diocese were pardoned on appeal to him, receiving penance and absolution. However, as Mary's reign progressed, public sentiment increasingly turned against her government and, for many who had been indifferent to the English Reformation, against Catholicism. Writings such as John Foxe's 1568 Book of Martyrs, which vividly emphasized the sufferings of the reformers under Mary, significantly shaped popular opinion against Catholicism in England for generations.

4.3. University Chancellorships

In addition to his ecclesiastical and advisory roles, Reginald Pole also held significant positions within higher education. In 1555 and 1555/1556 respectively, he was appointed Chancellor of Oxford University and Chancellor of Cambridge University. These appointments underscored his engagement with and influence over the academic institutions during his tenure as Archbishop.

5. Conflict with Pope Paul IV

Despite being a lifelong devout Catholic, Reginald Pole experienced a significant and long-running dispute with Pope Paul IV, which predated the latter's election to the papacy in 1555. Paul IV held a strong distaste for Catholic humanism and for figures like Pole, who advocated a softer approach to Catholicism aimed at winning over Protestants. Furthermore, Paul IV was fiercely anti-Spanish and vehemently opposed to Queen Mary's marriage to Philip II of Spain, a union that Pole had supported.

Because of these profound disagreements, Pope Paul IV first revoked Pole's legatine authority in England. Subsequently, he sought to recall Pole to Rome to face an investigation for heresy, based on some of Pole's early writings. Queen Mary, however, staunchly refused to send Pole to Rome, thereby protecting him from the Pope's direct jurisdiction. Nevertheless, she accepted his suspension from his legatine office, acknowledging the Pope's authority to remove him from that specific role.

6. Writings

Reginald Pole was a prolific author whose literary and theological works provide valuable insights into the religious and political landscape of his era. Among his notable writings are De Concilio (On the Council), a significant treatise on the authority of the pope, and a collection of measures he introduced to restore Catholic practice in England. He also authored many important letters, which were later edited by Angelo Maria Quirini and comprise five volumes published between 1744 and 1757, offering rich historical detail of the period.

Pole is particularly known for his strong condemnation of Machiavelli's influential political treatise, The Prince. Having read the book while in Italy, Pole famously commented: "I found this type of book to be written by an enemy of the human race. It explains every means whereby religion, justice and any inclination toward virtue could be destroyed." This critique highlights Pole's deep commitment to Christian morality and his rejection of Machiavelli's pragmatic and often amoral approach to statecraft.

7. Death

Reginald Pole died in London on 17 November 1558, during a widespread influenza epidemic. His death occurred at approximately 7:00 pm, nearly 12 hours after the death of Queen Mary I. He was laid to rest on the north side of the Corona at Canterbury Cathedral.

Reginald Pole's tomb at Canterbury Cathedral
Reginald Pole's tomb at Canterbury Cathedral

8. Legacy and Assessment

Reginald Pole's legacy is complex, shaped by his unwavering commitment to the Catholic Church amidst the tumultuous English Reformation. As the last Catholic Archbishop of Canterbury, he represented the final, fervent attempt to restore Roman Catholicism in England under Queen Mary I. His adherence to Catholic principles, especially papal supremacy, was a defining characteristic of his life, leading to his exile and the tragic persecution of his family under Henry VIII.

Pole's intellectual prowess and deep theological understanding positioned him as a significant figure in the broader Counter-Reformation movement. His participation in the Council of Trent and his near-election as Pope underscored his prominence within the Catholic hierarchy. He was a scholar and a humanist, advocating for a more moderate form of Catholicism, which sometimes brought him into conflict with more hardline figures like Pope Paul IV.

However, his tenure as Archbishop of Canterbury coincided with the Marian persecutions, a period of intense religious repression during which many Protestants were executed for heresy. While historical debate continues regarding the extent of Pole's direct responsibility for these persecutions, and some accounts suggest he favored leniency, the events undeniably cast a shadow on his legacy. These persecutions ultimately contributed to a hardening of anti-Catholic sentiment in England, paradoxically aiding the long-term success of the English Reformation.

Despite the controversies, Pole's life exemplifies a figure driven by profound religious conviction, willing to endure personal suffering for his beliefs. His efforts to re-establish Catholic institutions and practices, including his chancellorships at Oxford and Cambridge, reflect his dedication to revitalizing the Church in England. He remains a pivotal, albeit controversial, figure in English religious history, embodying the struggle between religious adherence and political power in the 16th century.

9. Criticism and Controversy

Reginald Pole's life, while marked by deep religious conviction, was not without significant criticism and controversy, particularly concerning his role during the Marian persecutions and his theological positions.

One of the most enduring criticisms against Pole stems from his alleged involvement in the Marian persecutions, during which approximately 280 Protestants were burned at the stake for heresy. While some historians argue that Pole, known for his gentleness and patience, was not directly responsible for the severity of these actions and even advocated for leniency, the fact remains that these executions occurred under his ecclesiastical authority as Archbishop of Canterbury and papal legate. His position as the Queen's chief minister and adviser meant he was intimately involved in the policies that enabled the revival of the Revival of the Heresy Acts in 1555, which provided the legal framework for the persecutions. Critics argue that even if he personally favored a softer approach, his failure to prevent or significantly mitigate the widespread executions makes him complicit in what is widely regarded as a grave violation of human rights. The brutal nature of these burnings, vividly documented by figures like John Foxe in his Book of Martyrs, served to solidify anti-Catholic sentiment in England for generations, further tarnishing the image of the Catholic restoration he championed.

Another area of controversy revolved around Pole's complex relationship with papal authority and his theological positions. Despite being a cardinal and papal legate, he faced accusations of heresy, specifically crypto-Lutheranism, due to his personal belief in justification by faith alone. This theological stance caused him problems at the Council of Trent and notably contributed to his narrow defeat in the 1549-50 papal conclave. Later, his long-running dispute with Pope Paul IV, who distrusted Pole's humanist leanings and his perceived softness towards Protestants, led to the Pope revoking Pole's legatine authority and attempting to recall him to Rome for an investigation into his orthodoxy. This conflict highlights the internal divisions within the Catholic Church during the Counter-Reformation and the suspicion that could fall upon even high-ranking figures who deviated from strict doctrinal interpretations. Pole's nuanced theological views, while perhaps intended to bridge divides, ultimately made him a target of both Protestant reformers and hardline Catholic traditionalists.

10. Impact

Reginald Pole's impact on Tudor England was profound, extending across its religious, political, and social landscapes. As the last Catholic Archbishop of Canterbury, his efforts represented the final, concerted attempt to reverse the English Reformation and restore England to the Catholic Church. His return from exile and appointment to the highest ecclesiastical office under Queen Mary I symbolized the brief but intense period of Catholic revival.

Pole's influence was evident in the re-establishment of Catholic doctrine and practices, including the reintroduction of papal authority and the negotiation of the papal dispensation regarding former monastic lands. His role in the revival of the Revival of the Heresy Acts had a devastating social impact, leading to the Marian persecutions that deeply affected communities and solidified anti-Catholic sentiment among many English people. This period, while intended to suppress Protestantism, inadvertently contributed to its long-term triumph by creating martyrs and fostering a national identity increasingly distinct from Roman Catholicism.

Beyond the religious sphere, Pole served as a key adviser to Queen Mary, effectively functioning as her chief minister. His intellectual background and diplomatic experience shaped policies during a critical juncture in English history. His chancellorships at Oxford and Cambridge also demonstrate his engagement with and influence over the nation's intellectual centers.

Ultimately, Pole's contributions to the continuity of Catholic identity in England, even after the Elizabethan settlement, are undeniable. He embodied the struggle of English Catholics to maintain their faith in the face of state-imposed religious change. His life and actions, though controversial, left an indelible mark on the religious consciousness and political trajectory of England, shaping its future relationship with both the papacy and Protestantism.