Plautus

1.1. Early Life and Background

Not much is known about the early life of Titus Maccius Plautus, but it is believed he was born around 254 BC in Sarsina, a small town located in Emilia-Romagna in northern Italy. In his early years, Plautus is thought to have worked as a stage-carpenter or scene-shifter. This early exposure to the theatrical environment may have ignited his lifelong passion for the stage. Traditional accounts suggest that he accumulated enough wealth to venture into the nautical business, but this endeavor reportedly failed, leading him to work as a manual laborer. During this period, he is said to have dedicated his leisure time to studying Ancient Greek comedy, particularly the New Comedy works of Menander.

1.2. Career Beginnings and Name

Plautus's talent for acting was eventually recognized, leading him to adopt the nomen "Maccius," derived from Maccus, a popular clownish stock character in Atellan Farce. He also took the agnomen "Plautus," which translates to "trampled flat," often referring to "flat-footed" or sometimes "flat-eared" like a hound. His studies of Greek drama enabled him to begin producing his own plays, which were released between approximately 205 BC and 184 BC.

1.3. Later Life and Death

Plautus achieved immense popularity during his lifetime, to the extent that his name alone became synonymous with theatrical success. He died in 184 BC. His epitaph reflects his profound impact on Roman comedy:
postquam est mortem aptus Plautus, Comoedia luget,
scaena deserta, dein risus, ludus iocusque
et numeri innumeri simul omnes conlacrimarunt.^Latin
This can be translated as:
"Since Plautus is dead, Comedy mourns,
The stage is deserted; then Laughter, Jest and Wit,
And all Melody's countless numbers wept together."

2.1. General Characteristics and Adaptation

Plautus's approach to playwriting involved adapting Ancient Greek comedy models for a Roman audience, often directly basing his works on Greek playwrights. He reworked these Greek texts to infuse them with a flavor appealing to local tastes, resulting in the earliest surviving intact works in Latin literature. While scholars have debated his originality, many agree that Plautus did not simply copy but rather freely modified and re-imagined his sources, sometimes creating new scenes and situations. His works frequently follow certain patterns, with recurring character types and plot devices.

2.2. Major Themes and Character Types

Plautus's plays are characterized by recurring major themes, archetypal characters, and plot devices. A notable aspect of his comedic style is the inversion of traditional Roman moral conventions for humorous effect, often highlighting social dynamics. For example, situations where a father becomes a rival for his son's affections, or where a mother chastises her husband, create humor by subverting traditional roles. The protagonist is often a high-born young man in love, and the female lead is typically a courtesan who is later revealed to be a kidnapped noblewoman.

2.3. Surviving Plays

Approximately 20 plays by Plautus have survived in their entirety. These include:

• Amphitruo: Set in Thebes. The god Jupiter disguises himself as the general Amphitruo to sleep with his wife Alcumena while the real general is at war. Jupiter's son Mercury, disguised as Amphitruo's slave Sosia, prevents the real Sosia from entering. Confusion and accusations of adultery ensue. Jupiter eventually reveals himself, explaining Alcumena's miraculous birth of two sons, one of whom is Hercules. (Missing a large segment towards the end).
• Asinaria ("The Comedy of Asses"): Demaenetus, an Athenian gentleman, helps his son Argyrippus finance his love for the prostitute Philaenium. His cunning slave Libanus, with Leonida, tricks a stranger into giving them money owed for donkeys. The money is given to Argyrippus on the condition that Demaenetus gets the first night with Philaenium. A rival lover, Diabolus, informs Demaenetus's wife Artemona, who furiously drags her husband away, leaving Argyrippus to enjoy Philaenium alone.
• Aulularia ("The Pot of Gold"): A miserly old man, Euclio, discovers and obsessively guards a pot (aula^Latin) of gold. His wealthy neighbor Megadorus proposes to marry Euclio's daughter Phaedrium, unaware she is pregnant by Megadorus's nephew Lyconides. Euclio attempts to hide the gold in various locations but is repeatedly spied upon by Lyconides's slave. The gold is stolen, and Lyconides confesses to Euclio about Phaedrium. The manuscript breaks off, but the ancient summary suggests the gold was returned, and Euclio agreed to the marriage, giving the gold as a dowry.
• Bacchides ("The Bacchis Sisters"): (First few scenes missing). Young Mnesilochus is in love with courtesan Bacchis. His friend Pistoclerus falls for her twin sister, also named Bacchis. Mnesilochus's cunning slave Chrysalus repeatedly tricks Mnesilochus's father, Nicobulus, out of money intended for Mnesilochus's courtesan. Eventually, the fathers discover the deception but are charmed into joining the party.
• Captivi ("The Captives"): Set in Aetolia. An old man, Hegio, buys Elian prisoners-of-war to exchange for his captured son. Among them, Philocrates and his slave Tyndarus swap identities. Philocrates returns home. Another captive reveals Tyndarus's true identity, leading to Tyndarus being sent to hard labor. Later, Philocrates returns with Hegio's son and a runaway slave who reveals Tyndarus is Hegio's long-lost son, kidnapped years ago. Tyndarus is freed and reunited with his father.
• Casina: Both father Lysidamus and son Euthynicus are in love with their adopted, beautiful 16-year-old Casina. Lysidamus sends his son abroad and plots to marry Casina to his farm-manager Olympio to use her as a mistress. His wife Cleostrata, discovering his plan, arranges for Casina to marry Euthynicus's servant Chalinus. When a lot-drawing favors Lysidamus's plan, Cleostrata disguises Chalinus as Casina, exposing Lysidamus to ridicule. Casina is kept safe for Euthynicus's return.
• Cistellaria ("The Little Casket"): (Missing large segments). Young courtesan Selenium is in love with Alcesimarchus, who promised marriage but is now engaged. Selenium believes she is the daughter of courtesan Melaenis, but her birth mother is Phanostrata, Alcesimarchus's fiancée's mother. Through a series of overheard conversations and the accidental discovery of recognition tokens kept in a small casket (cistella^Latin), Selenium's true parentage is revealed. This frees Alcesimarchus to marry Selenium.
• Curculio: Phaedromus, a young man in Epidaurus, is in love with Planesium, owned by pimp Cappadox. His parasite (hanger-on) Curculio, after failing to borrow money, steals a soldier's signet ring and uses it to trick a banker into paying Cappadox for Planesium. Planesium recognizes the ring as her father's, and the soldier recognizes his gift to her. Phaedromus marries Planesium, and since she is free-born, Cappadox must return the money.
• Epidicus: The slave Epidicus's young master Stratippocles returns from war in Thebes, having fallen in love with a captive girl. Epidicus must find 40 minae to buy her. Epidicus has a history of deceiving Stratippocles's father, Periphanes, into buying girls by pretending they are his daughter. Epidicus again tricks Periphanes into buying the new captive, ostensibly to prevent Stratippocles from buying her, but the money goes to Stratippocles. Further complications arise with the arrival of a woman, Philippa, whom Periphanes raped years ago, searching for her captured daughter. Through a stroke of luck, the captive girl is revealed to be Philippa's daughter, delighting Periphanes, who forgives Epidicus and grants him freedom.
• Menaechmi: Set in Epidamnus. Peniculus, a parasite, seeks dinner from Menaechmus, who is quarreling with his wife. Menaechmus plans to give his wife's cloak to his courtesan Erotium. Meanwhile, Menaechmus's long-lost twin brother, also named Menaechmus, arrives from Syracuse. A series of mistaken identities ensues, leading to the first Menaechmus being thought mad and rescued by his slave Messenio. The brothers finally meet, and the first Menaechmus decides to sell his belongings and return to Syracuse with his brother.
• Mercator ("The Merchant"): Charinus, son of Athenian merchant Demipho, brings Pasicompsa from Rhodes, intending to pass her off as a maid for his mother. His father, Demipho, sees Pasicompsa and desires her, arranging for his friend Lysimachus to buy and house her. Lysimachus's wife returns unexpectedly, causing a row. Lysimachus's son, Eutychus, discovers Pasicompsa, fetches Charinus, and helps him rescue her, later chastising Demipho for his disgraceful behavior.
• Miles Gloriosus ("The Braggart Soldier"): Set in Ephesus. The boastful soldier Pyrgopolynices has abducted courtesan Philocomasium from Athens. His slave Palaestrio, also captured, schemes with Philocomasium's lover, Pleusicles (lodging next door), to rescue her. Palaestrio creates a hole in the wall for secret visits. When spotted by a soldier's servant, Sceledrus, Palaestrio concocts a twin-sister deception. Later, Palaestrio, with courtesan Acroteleutium, tricks the soldier into believing Acroteleutium is madly in love with him, leading Pyrgopolynices to dismiss Philocomasium. He is then beaten when trying to claim his "new bride."
• Mostellaria ("The Ghost"): Young Philolaches is in love with courtesan Philematium and has borrowed money to buy her during his father's absence. His slave Tranio announces the father, Theopropides, is returning. Tranio quickly hides everyone inside and convinces Theopropides the house is haunted and cannot be entered. Tranio then tricks a neighbor, Simo, into letting Theopropides inspect his house, claiming it is for sale. Theopropides later discovers Tranio's deception and intends to punish him, but Philolaches's friend Callidamates intercedes, begging for forgiveness for both Philolaches and Tranio.
• Persa ("The Persian"): The cunning slave Toxilus, managing his master's house, is in love with Lemniselenis, a courtesan owned by pimp Dordalus. Toxilus borrows money from another slave, Sagaristio, promising repayment through a trick. He persuades his friend, the parasite Saturio, to lend his daughter for the scheme. Sagaristio disguises himself as a Persian and sells Saturio's daughter to Dordalus as an Arabian captive for a large sum. Saturio immediately reclaims his daughter as an Athenian citizen, dragging Dordalus to court. Since no guarantee was given, Dordalus loses the money, and Toxilus and Sagaristio celebrate their victory.
• Poenulus ("The Little Carthaginian"): Set in Calydon. Young Agorastocles is in love with slave-courtesan Adelphasium, owned by slave-dealer Lycus. His slave Milphio devises a plan to send Agorastocles's estate-manager Collybiscus to Lycus, pretending to be a rich customer. They trick Lycus into denying receiving money, and Agorastocles threatens court. a Carthaginian traveler, Hanno, arrives, speaking in Punic, searching for his two daughters captured by pirates. Hanno recognizes Agorastocles and discovers Adelphasium and her sister are his daughters, leading to a joyful reunion. Agorastocles declares he will return to Carthage with Hanno and the girls.
• Pseudolus: Young Calidorus is distressed because his beloved, slave-courtesan Phoenicium, has been sold to a Macedonian army officer, and he lacks 20 minae to buy her. The cunning slave Pseudolus promises to help. Pseudolus meets Phoenicium's owner, the slave-dealer Ballio, and later bets Calidorus's father, Simo, 20 minae that Phoenicium will be freed by day's end. Pseudolus then tricks the officer's servant, Harpax, into handing over a letter and the remaining money. Pseudolus then disguises another slave, Simio, as Harpax, sending him to Ballio to release Phoenicium. When the real Harpax returns, Simo and Ballio initially dismiss him as another trick, realizing too late they've been duped. Ballio pays Simo the bet, and Simo pays Pseudolus, who, drunk, offers Simo half his winnings to join a party.
• Rudens ("The Rope"): Two girls, Palaestra and Ampelisca, survive a shipwreck off North Africa and seek refuge in a temple of Venus. Young slave Trachalio, in love with Ampelisca, finds them. The slave-dealer Labrax, also shipwrecked, attempts to seize the girls but is stopped by Trachalio and Daemones, who lives nearby. Trachalio fetches his master, Plesidippus, who loves Palaestra and had paid Labrax a deposit. Plesidippus takes Labrax to court for fraud. Daemones's slave Gripus appears, dragging a basket from the sea. Trachalio prevents Gripus from stealing it, suspecting it contains Labrax's money and Palaestra's identity tokens. Daemones discovers Palaestra is his long-lost daughter. Labrax is forced to reward Gripus, and Daemones frees Gripus and Ampelisca, inviting all to dinner.
• Stichus: Two sisters, Philumena and Pamphila, complain their husbands have been away for three years, and their father, Antipho, pressures them to remarry. They refuse. Philumena sends for the parasite Gelasimus for news of her husband's ship, but a slave boy brings news of its arrival. Philumena's husband Epignomus arrives with his slave Stichus, who requests a holiday. Gelasimus repeatedly tries to get dinner invitations but is rebuffed. Pamphila's husband Pamphilippus arrives. Gelasimus again seeks an invitation and is rejected. Stichus and his friend Sangarinus celebrate with food, drink, and dancing, joined by their shared girlfriend Stephanium.
• Trinummus ("The Three Coins"): Athenian gentleman Megaronides reproaches his friend Callicles for cheaply buying the house of his absent neighbor, Charmides. Callicles explains he did so honorably to protect the house and its buried treasure from Charmides's spendthrift son, Lesbonicus. Lesbonicus's friend, Lysiteles, wishes to marry Charmides's daughter without a dowry to help Lesbonicus, but Lesbonicus refuses to dishonor his sister by not providing a dowry. Callicles learns this and, advised by Megaronides, decides to use the buried treasure as a dowry but not tell Lesbonicus to prevent misuse. They hire an imposter for three coins (trinummus^Latin) to pretend he brought money from Charmides in Syria. Charmides returns, has an amusing conversation with the imposter, and, after Callicles explains, is delighted. Lysiteles marries Charmides's daughter, and Lesbonicus is betrothed to Callicles's daughter.
• Truculentus ("The Churl"): Courtesan Phronesium has three lovers: Diniarchus, a city man; Strabax, a farmer; and Stratophanes, an army officer. Phronesium pretends a found baby is Stratophanes's child to extract more gifts. Diniarchus's cook arrives with gifts, leading to a quarrel with Stratophanes. Strabax arrives with money and is admitted. His slave, Truculentus, attempting to prevent his master from wasting money, is himself charmed by Phronesium's maid. Diniarchus is repeatedly refused entry. An old gentleman, Callicles, arrives looking for his daughter's baby (born after a rape). Two slave-girls reveal the baby was given to Phronesium and Diniarchus is the father. Diniarchus offers to marry Callicles's daughter. Phronesium keeps the baby longer for her deception. Stratophanes and Strabax quarrel jealously, but Strabax ultimately triumphs.

2.4. Fragmentary Plays

Only the titles and various fragments of these plays have survived.

• Acharistio
• Addictus ("The Devoted One")
• Ambroicus, or Agroicus ("The Rustic Man")
• Anus ("The Old Woman")
• Artamo ("The Mainsail")
• Astraba
• Baccharia
• Bis Compressa ("The Twice-Raped Woman")
• Boeotia ("Boeotia")
• Caecus ("The Blind Man"), or Praedones ("Plunderers")
• Calceolus ("The Little Shoe")
• Carbonaria ("The Charcoal-Burner")
• Clitellaria, or Astraba
• Colax ("The Flatterer")
• Commorientes ("Those Dying Together")
• Condalium ("The Slave Ring")
• Cornicularia
• Dyscolus ("The Grouch")
• Foeneratrix ("The Lady Moneylender")
• Fretum ("The Strait", or "Channel")
• Frivolaria ("Trifles")
• Fugitivi ("The Runaways"-possibly by Turpilius)
• Gastrion, or Gastron
• Hortulus ("Little Garden")
• Kakistus (possibly by Accius)
• Lenones Gemini ("The Twin Pimps")
• Nervolaria
• Parasitus Medicus ("The Parasite Physician")
• Parasitus Piger ("The Lazy Parasite"), or Lipargus
• Phagon ("The Glutton")
• Plociona
• Saturio
• Scytha Liturgus ("The Scythian Public Servant")
• Sitellitergus ("The Toilet Cleaner")
• Trigemini ("Triplets")
• Vidularia ("The Travelling Case")

4.1. Roman Society and Religion

Plautus's plays offer insights into Roman society and its religious views, including a degree of skepticism towards deities. Characters in his plays often compare mortals to gods, either in honor or mockery, which could be seen as demeaning to the gods. For instance, a character might express a preference for a woman's love over that of the gods. In Miles Gloriosus, Pyrgopolynices boasts of being born only a day after Jupiter. In Curculio, Phaedromus declares "I am a god" upon meeting Planesium. In Pseudolus, Jupiter is even compared to the pimp Ballio. It is also not uncommon for characters to openly scorn the gods, as seen in Poenulus and Rudens.

These portrayals suggest that Plautus reflected the existing skepticism about the gods prevalent in his era rather than inventing or encouraging irreverence. Had his plays been considered too risqué or subversive, the state, which controlled stage productions, would likely have banned them. This indicates that Plautus's depiction of deities was largely in line with contemporary attitudes.

4.2. Contemporary Wars

Plautus's plays were subtly influenced by contemporary events, particularly the Second Punic War (218-201 BC) and the Macedonian Wars, reflecting public sentiment and the economic hardship faced by common people. His comedies occasionally allude to the state being at arms, subtly touching on the "rawest nerves" of his audience.

For example, a passage in Miles Gloriosus, often dated to the late 3rd century BC, contains commentary believed to be a reference to the Second Punic War, which "engrossed the Romans more than all other public interests combined." The passage, beginning with hostis tibi adesse ("the foe is near at hand"), seems designed to rouse the audience, potentially supporting Scipio Africanus's popular plan to confront Hannibal directly. This suggests Plautus was willing to insert specific allusions comprehensible to his audience, aligning with public support for such military actions.

Later, as Rome considered embarking on the Second Macedonian War against Philip V of Macedon after the conflict with Carthage, significant debate arose. Many Romans, tired of continuous warfare, harbored deep anti-war sentiments even after the war's approval. Plautus, in plays like Stichus, appears to capture the complex mood of a Roman audience celebrating victory but facing new campaigns. The play's characters, particularly the dutiful daughters and their father, are obsessed with officium (duty), using words like pietas (piety) and aequus (justice) and striving for the father to fulfill his proper role. The character of the parasite Gelasimus, who offers to do any job to make ends meet, is interpreted as Plautus's portrayal of the economic hardship many Roman citizens endured due to the cost of war. By highlighting the desperation of the lower classes and the importance of civic responsibility, Plautus firmly aligned himself with the concerns of the average Roman citizen. Without explicitly mentioning specific wars to avoid danger, he subtly conveyed a message that the government should prioritize its own people's welfare before undertaking further military actions.

5.1. Theatrical Environment in Republican Rome

During Plautus's time, unlike in Ancient Greece which boasted permanent stone theaters, Rome lacked fixed theatrical structures. The first permanent theater in Rome was not dedicated until Pompey's in 55 BC in the Campus Martius. This absence stemmed from a strong aversion among Romans, particularly the aristocracy, to the erection of permanent theaters, partly due to a belief that drama had a demoralizing influence. This concern was fueled by the subject matter of Plautus's plays, which often upended social norms and blurred the lines between reality and stage.

Performances were largely dependent on the "good graces and unlimited resources" of the aristocracy, who funded the construction of temporary wooden stages during specific festivals. These stages were shallow and long, typically featuring three openings leading to a scene-house, and were significantly smaller than Greek structures. Due to fire hazards and the low priority given to permanent theater, these structures were built and dismantled, often within a single day, for performances during Roman festivals.

5.2. Performance Conventions and Audience Interaction

Plautus's plays were performed during the Ludi, or festival games, which were religious in nature. Temporary stages were usually erected within the precinct of the deity being honored, such as the ludi Megalenses, which offered more days for dramatic representations than other regular festivals. Seating in these temporary theaters was often insufficient, with social status determining who could sit and who had to stand. While the lower classes attended, they typically stood, with prominent members of society given front-row access.

The small, shallow stages necessitated a different acting style from Greek theater. With limited space for grand gestures, Roman actors relied more on their voices. The absence of an orchestra meant no space separated the audience from the stage, allowing the audience to stand directly in front of the elevated wooden platform. This close proximity fostered a unique relationship between actors and audience, demanding direct engagement and acknowledgement from the performers, akin to modern audience interaction. The thrill of the performance for the audience came from this directness and detail, hearing every word and seeing every expression up close. The lack of a chorus, a common feature in Greek drama, meant that a "prologue" character often served a similar function in Roman plays.

The geography of Plautus's stage often mirrored that of the city, helping the audience orient themselves within the play's locale. References to Roman places served as blatant reminders that the production was happening in Rome itself, making the plays more "true-to-life" in their choreography. Characters' exits and entrances were often choreographed to align with their social standing and the expected location (e.g., a doctor's house might be offstage to the right, implying the forum). Characters in opposition often exited in opposite directions. Even the spatial semantics of the stage were thematically charged; for instance, in Casina, the struggle for control between men and women is articulated through their efforts to control stage movement into and out of the house.

The dialogue itself contained inherent stage directions, with verbs of motion or phrases like abeo ("I go off"), transeo ("I go over"), fores crepuerunt ("the doors creak"), or intus ("inside") signaling character movements. To manage the passage of time or shift between acts, Plautus sometimes used "cover monologues," which directly addressed the audience and often switched meters, distracting and distorting the audience's sense of time passing.

6.1. Colloquial and Archaic Features

Plautus wrote in a colloquial style, differing significantly from the later codified forms of Latin found in authors like Ovid or Virgil. His language mirrors the everyday speech of his time, making it less familiar to students of Classical Latin. The inconsistencies and irregularities in his texts, while initially troubling to scholars, are now largely understood as reflecting the less fixed and stable nature of Latin inflection, syntax, and versification during his era.

Plautus's diction is notably non-standard from a classical perspective, demonstrating freedom from convention as he sought to reproduce the easy tone of daily speech rather than the formal regularity of oratory or poetry. Many of the perceived irregularities likely stem from the "careless and untrained tongues" he heard around him. Archaic forms are common in his plays, particularly in promises, agreements, threats, prologues, and speeches. While metrically convenient, these archaic features also served a stylistic purpose for his original audience.

Some noteworthy archaic features (from a later classical perspective) include:

• The use of uncontracted forms of some verbs, such as mavolo ("prefer") instead of the later malo.
• The retention of the final -e in second person singular imperatives for verbs that later lacked it (e.g., dic(e) for "say").
• The preservation of -u- in words like maxumus, proxumus, lacrumare (instead of later -i-), and -vo- before r, s, or t (e.g., vostrum for later vestrum).
• The use of the -ier ending for the present passive and deponent infinitive (e.g., exsurgier for exsurgī).
• The joining of forms of sum to the preceding word, known as prodelision (e.g., bonumst for bonum est "it's good").
• The dropping of the final -s in second-singular verb forms and the final -e of the question-particle -ne when combined (e.g., viden? for videsne? "you see?").
• The retention of short -ŏ in second declension noun endings for later -ŭ.
• The retention of qu- in many words instead of later c- (e.g., quom instead of cum).
• The use of the disyllabic -āī genitive singular ending alongside -ae.
• The retention of final -d after a long vowel in pronouns like mēd, tēd, sēd (accusative and ablative, used before prevocalic words).
• The occasional addition of a final -pte, -te, or -met to pronouns.
• The use of -īs as an accusative plural and, less frequently, nominative plural ending.

These linguistic peculiarities, some also found in Terence, provide insight into early Roman language and social interaction.

6.2. Expressive Devices

Plautus employed various characteristic means of expression in his plays, including the extensive use of proverbs and the integration of foreign languages, particularly Greek and Punic. Proverbs, numbering in the hundreds, appear in many of his plays, addressing genres such as law, religion, medicine, trades, crafts, and seafaring. They are often interwoven within speeches or used for dramatic emphasis at the end of a soliloquy.

The incorporation of Greek words is a common artistic choice, not merely for metrical convenience. Greek terms are frequently used when describing exotic items like foods, oils, or perfumes, similar to the use of French terms in English today. Slaves or characters of low social standing often speak Greek, possibly reflecting the fact that many Roman slaves were of Greek origin.

Plautus also included passages in other languages when appropriate for his characters. A notable example is the inclusion of two prayers in Punic in Poenulus, spoken by the Carthaginian elder Hanno. These passages are linguistically significant as they preserve the Carthaginian pronunciation of vowels. It is unlikely that Plautus himself spoke Punic, or that his audience understood it; the text was probably provided by a Carthaginian informant, serving to emphasize Hanno's authenticity and foreignness.

His use of poetic devices further enhanced his style. Alliteration, the repetition of sounds at the beginning of words, is notably used by the servus callidus (clever slave) to assert cleverness and authority. For example, in Miles Gloriosus, Palaestrio uses phrases like "falsiloquom, falsicum, falsiiurium" (meaning "false-speaking, false, false-swearing"). Assonance, the repetition of similar-sounding syllables, is also employed.

6.3. Humor and Wordplay

Puns and wordplay are central to Plautus's comedic style and linguistic artistry. His comedies are filled with ingenious wordplay, riddles, and a "knock knock - who's there?" pattern. Plautus was particularly fond of inventing words and altering their meanings, a linguistic trait he shares with later playwrights like William Shakespeare. For instance, in Miles Gloriosus, the name of the female concubine, Philocomasium, aptly translates to "lover of a good party," reflecting her character's wild ways. His devotion to puns is evident in character names, where they often clearly reflect the character's nature.

6.4. Meter and Musicality

Plautus's metrical choices were crucial to the rhythm and vitality of his plays, distinguishing them from their Greek originals. He did not strictly follow the meters of the Greek texts he adapted. While he used a variety of meters, the iambic senarius and the trochaic septenarius were among his most frequent choices. A significant feature of Plautus's work, not found in Terence, is his preference for cantica (sung passages) over strict Greek meters. These musical elements, sometimes combined with instrumental music, contributed greatly to the dramatic expansion and entertainment value of his plays, making effective use of indigenous Italian music and language.

6.5. Vigor and Immediacy

Plautus achieved dramatic vigor and immediacy through specific linguistic tools, especially the use of monologues and imperative moods, which contributed to character role-reversal and highlighted societal power shifts. The servus callidus often functions as the primary source of exposition in many plays, accounting for almost twice as much monologue as any other character. These monologues serve to deliver humor, moralizing, and exposition, cementing the slave's importance. By connecting directly with the audience through their monologues, these characters become a vital link to the play's humor and playfulness, drawing complete audience attention and often eliciting sympathy despite their deceptions.

Beyond simple exposition, prologues in Plautus's plays serve a more profound function. The servus callidus also asserts power over other characters through the frequent use of the imperative mood. This linguistic choice enables a forceful inversion of the normal slave-master relationship, reducing the master to an "abject position of supplication." This master-as-suppliant dynamic is a significant feature of Plautine comic finales, where those who hold authority and respect in ordinary Roman society are unseated and ridiculed, while the lowliest members are exalted.

6.6. Audience Understanding of Greek

Of the approximately 270 proper names in Plautus's surviving plays, about 250 are Greek, suggesting they would have delivered a comic punch to an audience with a basic understanding of the Greek language. This understanding is believed to have come from the experiences of Roman soldiers during the First Punic War and Second Punic War. Soldiers billeted in Greek areas had opportunities to learn conversational Greek and even to see plays in the foreign tongue. Having an audience with some knowledge of Greek allowed Plautus greater freedom to incorporate Greek references and words for comedic and educational effect. Plautus, by using Greek references and signaling his plays' Greek origins, may have served as a teacher of Greek literature, myth, art, and philosophy, familiarizing Romans with the richness of the foreign tongue.

As Rome expanded and achieved success in Greece, Plautus's use and "abuse" of Greek comedy subtly implied the superiority of Rome. His distortion and transformation of Greek plays into something entirely Roman, where "crude vitality" triumphed, suggested that the "effete comic plots" of the Greek world reflected why the Greeks proved inadequate in a real world where Romans exercised mastery.

7.1. Medieval and Early Renaissance Reception

Plautus's plays were read as early as the 9th century. However, their complex form was not fully understood, and at the time, it was unclear whether he wrote in prose or verse, as indicated by the Terentius et delusor. Amphitruo was consistently one of Plautus's most famous works, enjoying popularity in the Middle Ages and being publicly performed during the Renaissance. It was also the first Plautine play to be translated into English.

The influence of Plautus's plays became particularly strong in the early 16th century. Limited records suggest that the first known university production of a Plautine play in England was Miles Gloriosus at Oxford University in 1522-1523. Another known production of Miles Gloriosus took place at the Westminster School in 1564. Performances of Menaechmi are also recorded, with boys from St. Paul's School performing it at Cardinal Wolsey's house as early as 1527.

7.2. Influence on Later Playwrights

Playwrights across centuries have drawn upon Plautus for character types, plot structures, humor, and other comedic elements. His influence ranges from conceptual similarities to direct translations integrated into plays. Plautus's apparent familiarity with the absurdities of humanity and the comedy and tragedy arising from them continued to inspire succeeding playwrights.

7.3. Modern Adaptations and Scholarship

Plautus's works continue to be adapted in modern media, including musicals and sitcoms. The 20th-century musical A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum, with book by Larry Gelbart and Burt Shevelove and music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim, is a notable adaptation based on Plautus's comedies. The British television sitcom Up Pompeii! also utilizes situations and stock characters from Plautus's plays, with one character, Plautus himself (played by Willie Rushton), occasionally appearing to offer comedic commentary on the episode's events.

Academic scholarship also plays a crucial role in the ongoing study of Plautus's comedies. Works such as Roman Laughter: The Comedy of Plautus, a 1968 book by Erich Segal, exemplify the scholarly dedication to understanding and analyzing his enduring contributions to drama.