1. Overview
Philip III (born May 1, 1245 - died October 5, 1285), often known as "the Bold" (le Hardithe BoldFrench), reigned as King of France from 1270 until his death in 1285. He was a member of the House of Capet. Philip ascended to the throne at the age of 25 in Tunis following the death of his father, Louis IX, during the Eighth Crusade. Upon his return to France, he was formally crowned king in Reims in 1271.
Philip's reign saw significant territorial expansion for the royal domain, notably through the annexation of the County of Toulouse in 1271 and the acquisition of the County of Guînes in 1281, the County of Alençon in 1286, and the Duchy of Auvergne in 1271. His influence also extended into the Kingdom of Navarre through a strategic marriage. While he was described as pious and bold in battle, historical accounts suggest he was often indecisive, shy, and susceptible to the influence of stronger personalities, initially his mentor Pierre de la Broce and later his uncle Charles I of Naples. His foreign policy was largely shaped by his support for his uncle in the aftermath of the Sicilian Vespers, leading to the costly and ultimately unsuccessful Aragonese Crusade, which severely strained the French monarchy's finances. He died of dysentery in Perpignan during the retreat from this campaign.
2. Early Life and Education
Philip III's early life was marked by his position as a younger son, his education under the guidance of key figures, and the unexpected turn of events that made him heir apparent to the French throne.
2.1. Birth and Family
Philip was born in Poissy, France, on May 1, 1245. He was the second son of Louis IX of France, who would later be canonized as Saint Louis, and Margaret of Provence. His siblings included an elder brother, Louis, who was initially the heir, and a sister, Isabella.
2.2. Upbringing and Education
As a younger son, Philip was not initially expected to rule France. His mother, Margaret of Provence, made him promise to remain under her tutelage until he reached the age of 30. However, Pope Urban IV released him from this oath on June 6, 1263, when Philip was 18. From that point, Pierre de la Broce, a royal favorite and household official of Louis IX, became Philip's primary mentor. His father, Louis IX, also provided guidance, notably through his written *Enseignements*, which emphasized justice as the foremost duty of a king. In 1262, Philip married Isabella of Aragon in Clermont-Ferrand, a union arranged by the terms of the Treaty of Corbeil (1258) between Louis IX and James I of Aragon.
2.3. Becoming Heir Apparent
The course of Philip's life irrevocably changed with the death of his older brother, Louis, in 1260. This event, when Philip was 15 years old, designated him as the heir apparent to the French throne, fundamentally altering his future role and responsibilities.
3. The Eighth Crusade and Accession
Philip's participation in the Eighth Crusade proved to be a pivotal moment, leading directly to his unexpected accession to the French throne amidst a devastating epidemic.
3.1. Participation in the Eighth Crusade
In 1270, as the Count of Orléans, Philip accompanied his father, King Louis IX, on the Eighth Crusade to Tunis. Before their departure, Louis IX had appointed Mathieu de Vendôme and Simon II, Count of Clermont, as regents of the kingdom, entrusting them with the royal seal. The crusader army successfully took Carthage, but soon after, an epidemic of dysentery, possibly typhus, swept through the camp.
3.2. Death of Louis IX and Regency
The epidemic claimed many lives, including members of the royal family. Philip's brother, John Tristan, Count of Valois, died on August 3, 1270, followed by King Louis IX on August 25. To facilitate the transport of Louis IX's remains back to France, the practice of *mos Teutonicus* was performed, which involved separating the flesh from the bones.
Philip, himself afflicted with dysentery and only 25 years old, was proclaimed king in Tunis. His uncle, Charles I of Naples, played a crucial role in negotiating a peace treaty with Muhammad I al-Mustansir, the Hafsid Caliph of Tunis. This treaty was concluded on November 5, 1270, between the kings of France, Sicily, and Navarre, and the Caliph.
The journey back to France was fraught with further tragedy. In December, Philip's brother-in-law, King Theobald II of Navarre, died in Trapani, Sicily. In February of the following year, Philip's wife, Isabella, who was pregnant with their fifth child, died in Cosenza, Calabria, after falling from her horse. In April, Theobald's widow and Philip's sister, Isabella, also passed away.
3.3. Coronation
Philip III finally arrived in Paris on May 21, 1271, where he paid tribute to the deceased. The funeral of his father, Louis IX, was held the following day. The new sovereign was formally crowned King of France in Reims on August 15, 1271.
4. Reign and Governance
Philip III's reign was characterized by a continuation of many of his father's policies, significant territorial expansion of the royal domain, and efforts to assert royal authority over powerful vassals.
4.1. Domestic Policies
Philip largely maintained his father's domestic policies, including the royal ordinances against seigneurial warfare that Louis IX had passed in 1258. Philip reinforced these by issuing his own ordinance in October 1274.
He also followed his father's approach concerning the Jewish population in France, citing piety as his motivation. Upon his return to Paris on September 23, 1271, Philip re-enacted his father's order requiring Jews to wear distinctive badges. Furthermore, his charter in 1283 prohibited the construction and repair of synagogues and Jewish cemeteries, banned Jews from employing Christians, and sought to curb Jewish *strepiti*, referring to chanting too loudly.
4.2. Territorial Expansion and Royal Domain
Philip's reign saw substantial growth of the royal domain. On August 21, 1271, his uncle, Alphonse, Count of Poitiers and Toulouse, died childless in Savona. Philip inherited Alphonse's vast lands, which included a portion of Auvergne (later the Duchy of Auvergne) and the Agenais, and promptly united them with the royal domain. In accordance with Alphonse's wishes, Philip granted the Comtat Venaissin to Pope Gregory X in 1274. However, the Treaty of Amiens (1279) with King Edward I of England later restored the Agenais to English control in 1279. In 1281, Philip also acquired the County of Guînes. Through the marriage of his son Philip to Joan I, the Kingdom of Navarre also came under French influence. Additionally, in 1286, the County of Alençon reverted to the royal domain following the death of his brother Peter without issue.
4.3. Conflict with the County of Foix
In 1271, Philip commanded the Seneschal of Toulouse to record oaths of loyalty from nobles and town councils in the newly acquired territories. The following year, Roger-Bernard III, Count of Foix, invaded the County of Toulouse, killing several royal officials and capturing the town of Sombuy. Philip's royal seneschal, Eustache de Beaumarchès, led a counter-attack into the County of Foix but was later ordered by Philip to withdraw.
Philip and his army arrived in Toulouse on May 25, 1272. On June 1, at Boulbonne, he met James I of Aragon, who attempted to mediate the dispute, but Roger-Bernard rejected the mediation. Philip then launched a campaign to devastate and depopulate the County of Foix. By June 5, Roger-Bernard had surrendered and was incarcerated in chains at Carcassonne. Philip imprisoned him for a year before eventually freeing him and restoring his lands.
5. Foreign Relations and Conflicts
Philip III's foreign policy was largely defined by his involvement in the succession of Navarre, the fallout from the Sicilian Vespers, and the disastrous Aragonese Crusade.
5.3. The Sicilian Vespers and its Aftermath
In 1282, Sicily erupted in revolt against King Charles I of Naples, Philip's uncle. The uprising, known as the Sicilian Vespers, was fueled by years of heavy taxation and resulted in the massacre of many Angevins and French. King Peter III of Aragon subsequently landed on Sicily in support of the rebels, claiming the Sicilian crown for himself. The success of this rebellion and invasion led to Peter's coronation as King of Sicily on September 4, 1282. In response, Pope Martin IV excommunicated Peter and declared his kingdom forfeited. Martin IV then granted Aragon to Philip's son, Charles, Count of Valois. Philip's brother, Peter, Count of Perche, who had joined Charles I to suppress the rebellion, was killed in Reggio Calabria. As Peter died without issue, the County of Alençon reverted to the royal domain in 1286.
5.4. The Aragonese Crusade
At the urging of his second wife, Marie of Brabant, and his uncle, Charles I of Naples, Philip launched a war against the Crown of Aragon. This conflict, known as the "Aragonese Crusade" due to its papal sanction, was later described by one historian as "perhaps the most unjust, unnecessary and calamitous enterprise ever undertaken by the Capetian monarchy."
Philip, accompanied by his sons, entered Roussillon at the head of a large army. By June 26, 1285, he had entrenched his forces before Girona and laid siege to the city. Despite strong resistance, Philip's forces captured Girona on September 7, 1285. However, the French camp soon suffered a severe reversal as an epidemic of dysentery struck, afflicting Philip personally.
The French army began its withdrawal when Aragonese forces attacked, easily defeating them at the Battle of the Col de Panissars on October 1.
6. Marriages and Children
Philip III had two marriages, which produced several children who would play significant roles in European politics.
6.1. First Marriage: Isabella of Aragon
On May 28, 1262, Philip married Isabella of Aragon, the daughter of King James I of Aragon and his second wife, Violant of Hungary. They had the following children:
- Louis (1264 - May 1276). Some sources suggest he may have been poisoned, possibly at the behest of his stepmother.
- Philip IV (1268 - November 29, 1314), who succeeded his father as King of France and married Joan I of Navarre.
- Robert (1269-1271).
- Charles (March 12, 1270 - December 16, 1325), who became Count of Valois in 1284 and was the progenitor of the House of Valois. He married three times: first to Margaret of Naples (Countess of Anjou) in 1290, second to Catherine I of Courtenay in 1302, and third to Mahaut of Chatillon in 1308.
- A stillborn son (1271).
Isabella died in February 1271 during the return journey from the Eighth Crusade, after falling from her horse while pregnant.
6.2. Second Marriage: Marie of Brabant
After Queen Isabella's death, Philip married Marie of Brabant on August 21, 1274. She was the daughter of the late Henry III, Duke of Brabant, and Adelaide of Burgundy, Duchess of Brabant. Their children were:
- Louis (May 1276 - May 19, 1319), who became Count of Évreux in 1298 and was the progenitor of the House of Évreux. He married Margaret of Artois.
- Blanche (1278 - March 19, 1305, Vienna), who married Duke Rudolf III of Austria (the future King Rudolf I of Bohemia and Poland) on May 25, 1300.
- Margaret (1282 - February 14, 1318), who married King Edward I of England on September 8, 1299.
7. Death
Philip III died of dysentery in Perpignan, the capital of his ally James II of Majorca, on October 5, 1285. His death occurred during the retreat from the disastrous Aragonese Crusade, which had also afflicted him personally with the disease. He was succeeded by his son, Philip the Fair.
Following the custom of *mos Teutonicus*, Philip III's body was divided for burial in several locations. His flesh was sent to Narbonne Cathedral, his entrails to La Noë Abbey in Normandy, his heart to the now-demolished Church of the Couvent des Jacobins in Paris, and his bones were interred at the Basilica of Saint-Denis, north of Paris, alongside his first wife, Isabella of Aragon.
8. Legacy and Historical Evaluation
Philip III's reign left a mixed legacy, marked by significant territorial expansion but also by costly military ventures and criticisms of his leadership.
8.1. Impact on the Royal Domain and Finances
During Philip's reign, the royal domain expanded considerably. He acquired the County of Toulouse and the Duchy of Auvergne in 1271, the County of Guînes in 1281, and the County of Alençon in 1286. Furthermore, through the marriage of his son Philip to Joan I, the Kingdom of Navarre came under French influence. These territorial gains significantly strengthened the French monarchy's direct control over a larger portion of the kingdom.
However, his military ventures, particularly the Aragonese Crusade, placed immense strain on the royal finances. The war nearly bankrupted the French monarchy, creating significant financial challenges for his successor, Philip IV.
8.2. Historical Assessments and Criticisms
Philip III largely continued the policies of his revered father, Louis IX, and retained many of his father's administrators. Despite being called "the Bold" (le Hardithe BoldFrench)-a nickname attributed to his prowess in battle and on horseback, particularly during the campaign in Tunis or Spain, rather than his personal character-he was often described as indecisive, weak, shy, and easily influenced by those with stronger personalities. Early in his reign, he was seen as manipulated by his favorite, Pierre de la Broce, and later by his ambitious uncle, Charles I of Naples. While he was a pious ruler, he was not considered a fanatic.
The Aragonese Crusade, in particular, is viewed critically by historians, with one labeling it "perhaps the most unjust, unnecessary and calamitous enterprise ever undertaken by the Capetian monarchy." This costly failure significantly impacted his legacy.
8.3. Portrayal by Dante
The renowned Italian poet Dante Alighieri offers a notable portrayal of Philip III in his epic poem, the *Divine Comedy*. In the *Purgatorio*, Dante envisions Philip's spirit outside the gates of Purgatory alongside other contemporary European rulers. Although Dante does not name Philip directly, he refers to him as "the small-nosed" and, more significantly, as "the father of the Pest of France." This latter epithet is a critical reference to Philip's son and successor, Philip IV, suggesting a negative assessment of the future king's influence.