Niijima Yae

1.1. Early Life and Background

Yamamoto Yae was born on December 1, 1845, in Aizu, Mutsu Province (present-day Fukushima Prefecture), Japan. She was the daughter of Yamamoto Gonpachi (山本権八^Japanese), a samurai who served as one of the official gunnery instructors for the Aizu Domain, and his wife Saku. Her family's stipend was 22 koku with an additional allowance for four people. The Yamamoto family claimed direct descent from Yamamoto Kansuke (山本勘助^Japanese), a renowned strategist and retainer of the Takeda clan. Yae had an elder brother, Yamamoto Kakuma (山本覚馬^Japanese). From a young age, Yae showed a keen interest in firearms, a highly unusual pursuit for a woman during the Bakumatsu period, and developed considerable skill in gunnery under her father's tutelage. In 1865, she married Shonosuke Kawasaki (川崎尚之助^Japanese), a Rangaku (Dutch Studies) scholar from the Izushi Domain (present-day Toyooka) who served as a professor at the domain's school, Nisshinkan.

1.2. Aizu Period and Boshin War

Yae's gunnery skills proved crucial during the Boshin War, which erupted in 1868. As the Meiji government forces advanced northward after taking Edo, they attacked Aizu, a stronghold of the Tokugawa Shogunate supporters. During the Battle of Aizu, Yae actively participated in the defense of Aizuwakamatsu Castle (会津若松城^Japanese). She cut her hair short and dressed in male attire, fighting alongside the Aizu warriors. She wielded a Spencer repeating rifle and a katana, bravely defending the castle. It is noted that her Spencer carbine was reportedly the only one of its kind in the entire Aizu Domain, and she fought using the 100 rounds of ammunition she had brought herself. Yae was recognized as an excellent marksman; it is said that she severely wounded Ōyama Iwao (大山厳^Japanese), the commander of the Satsuma Domain's Second Artillery Unit, forcing him to withdraw from the front lines.
After the surrender of the Aizu Domain, Yae took shelter in the nearby Yonezawa Domain in Yonezawa, Yamagata, where she stayed for approximately one year. Her first husband, Shonosuke, was captured as a prisoner of war during the conflict. Their separation became permanent after the defeat of Aizu, and their divorce was finalized in December 1871. Her courageous actions and unconventional role in the war earned her the nickname "Bakumatsu Joan of Arc."

1.3. Life in Kyoto and Education

In 1871, Yae relocated to Kyoto, seeking out her brother, Yamamoto Kakuma, who had been imprisoned by the Satsuma Domain and was later released to serve as an advisor to the Kyoto prefectural government. Upon her arrival, Kakuma recommended her for a position as a substitute instructor at the Kyoto Women's School (京都女紅場_{Kyōto Jokōba}^Japanese), which later became Kyoto Prefectural Oki High School.
While working at the Kyoto Women's School, Yae cultivated an interest in traditional Japanese arts. She became acquainted with a sadō (Japanese tea ceremony) instructor from the prestigious Urasenke (裏千家^Japanese) school. Through this connection, Yae immersed herself in the art of tea ceremony, eventually earning a tea-master qualification in 1894. She was granted the art-name Niijima Sōchiku (新島宗竹_{Niijima Sōchiku}^Japanese) and later contributed to the spread of the Urasenke style by opening a tea ceremony classroom for women in Kyoto. She also developed an interest in kadō (Japanese flower arrangement), learning from the 42nd headmaster of the Ikenobō (池坊^Japanese) school, Ikenobō Senjō. In 1896, she received a certificate acknowledging her proficiency in flower arrangement from Ikenobō.

During the early 1870s, Yae met Reverend Joseph Hardy Neesima (新島襄_{Niijima Jō}^Japanese), an American Board missionary who frequently visited her brother Kakuma. Neesima, a former samurai, had spent a decade (1864-1874) studying in the United States. Upon his return to Japan in 1874, he embarked on establishing a Western-style school focused on promoting Christianity. However, his efforts faced strong opposition from Buddhists and Shintoists in Kyoto, who repeatedly petitioned the prefectural government to prevent its establishment.

1.4. Marriage to Niijima Jo and Doshisha

Yae and Neesima became engaged in October 1875. Shortly after their engagement, Yae was dismissed from her teaching position at the Kyoto Women's School due to governmental pressure stemming from the opposition to Neesima's Christian school. Despite this setback, Yae, alongside Neesima and her brother Kakuma, volunteered to help manage the newly founded Doshisha English School (同志社英学校_{Dōshisha Eigakkō}^Japanese). She played an integral role in its establishment and subsequent growth.
Yae and Neesima married on January 3, 1876. Neesima, having been educated in the United States, was a strong advocate for women's rights. This progressive mindset influenced their marriage, which was notably different from conventional Japanese relationships of the time. In November 1876, with the assistance of American missionary Alice J. Starkweather, Yae established a small girls' school called Joshijuku (女学校_Joshijuku^Japanese) at the former residence of the Yanagihara family. This institution was later renamed Doshisha Branch School for Girls and then officially became Doshisha Girls' School (同志社女子大学_{Dōshisha Joshi Daigaku}^Japanese) in 1877.

While Neesima and Yae shared a loving and egalitarian relationship, their dynamic often contradicted the prevailing social norms of Edo period Japan. Neesima's courtesy towards Yae, such as allowing her to enter a carriage before him, was perceived by some as a sign of her being a "bad wife" (悪妻_Akusai^Japanese), as it was interpreted as Yae dominating her husband. Despite such societal criticism, their bond remained strong. Neesima himself admired Yae's independent spirit, describing her lifestyle as "handsome" (ハンサム_Hansamu^Japanese) in a letter to friends in the United States. He even wrote to Shozaburo Tokura (土倉庄三郎^Japanese), a financial supporter of Doshisha and a leader of the Freedom and People's Rights Movement, expressing his concern for Yae's future and the school's welfare after his own inevitable passing due to heart disease. Joseph Hardy Neesima suddenly died on January 23, 1890, leaving Yae a widow.

1.5. Later Career and Nursing

Following Neesima's death, Yae's relationship with some of his disciples and colleagues at Doshisha School gradually became strained. She found it difficult to reconcile with students from the Satsuma Domain and Chōshū Domain, as these domains had attacked Aizu during the Boshin War. In her later career, Yae shifted her primary focus to nursing. On April 26, 1890, she became a regular member of the Japanese Red Cross Society.

During the First Sino-Japanese War in 1894, Yae volunteered as a nurse with the Japanese army and spent four months stationed at the Army Reserve Hospital in Hiroshima. She led a team of 40 nurses, providing care for wounded soldiers. A key aspect of her efforts during this time was advocating for the improvement of the social status of trained nurses. Her dedication and contributions were recognized by the Japanese government, and she was awarded her first Order of the Precious Crown (Seventh Class) in 1896, becoming the first woman outside of the Imperial House of Japan to be decorated for service to the country after the Meiji Restoration.
After the Sino-Japanese War, Yae continued her involvement in nursing by working as an instructor in nursing schools. When the Russo-Japanese War broke out in 1904, she once again volunteered, serving as a nurse at the Imperial Japanese Army hospital in Osaka for two months. For this service, she received her second Order of the Precious Crown (Sixth Class). Her compassionate care for all wounded soldiers, regardless of their nationality, including those from China and Russia, earned her widespread admiration from the media, which famously compared her to the renowned British nurse Florence Nightingale, giving her the nickname "Nightingale of Japan." In 1907, she donated the former residence of Joseph Neesima to Doshisha. For her lifelong commitment and service to the nation, she was further honored with a silver cup at the inauguration of the Shōwa Emperor in 1928.

Niijima Yae maintained her residence on Teramachi Street in Kyoto until her death. She passed away on June 14, 1932, at the age of 86. Her funeral was sponsored by Doshisha University and was attended by approximately 4,000 people. She was laid to rest at Doshisha Cemetery in Sakyō-ku, Kyoto, beside her husband Joseph Neesima. Her tombstone inscription was personally written by Tokutomi Sohō, a close friend and former student of Neesima.

3.1. Awards and Recognition

Yae received numerous official honors for her public service and contributions. Her earliest decoration, the Order of the Precious Crown, Seventh Class, was awarded in 1896 in recognition of her nursing service during the First Sino-Japanese War. For her continued efforts as a nurse during the Russo-Japanese War, she was awarded the Order of the Precious Crown, Sixth Class, in 1904. These honors were particularly significant as she was the first woman outside the Imperial House of Japan to be officially decorated for her service to the country after the Meiji Restoration. In 1928, she was further honored with a silver cup during the enthronement ceremony of the Shōwa Emperor, acknowledging her lifelong commitment to the nation.
Her courage and dedication in various fields earned her several distinguished epithets. She was widely known as the "Nightingale of Japan" due to her pioneering work in nursing and compassionate care for all soldiers. Her fierce fighting spirit and active participation in the Boshin War led to comparisons with the French heroine "Bakumatsu Joan of Arc" and the Japanese female warrior "Aizu Tomoe Gozen" (巴御前_{Tomoe Gozen}^Japanese).

3.2. Societal Perception and Criticism

Despite her notable achievements, Yae often faced criticism and was a subject of intense scrutiny in Japanese society, particularly during her marriage to Joseph Neesima. Her independent spirit and unconventional behavior, which clashed with the traditional expectations of Japanese women in the Edo and early Meiji periods, led to her being labeled a "bad wife" (悪妻_Akusai^Japanese). This label stemmed from her open and egalitarian relationship with Neesima, where he often showed her courtesy and respect in public, contrary to the custom where a wife was expected to be subservient to her husband. Observers, including some of Neesima's own students like Tokutomi Sohō (who later became a close confidant), viewed her assertive demeanor and Neesima's "lady-first" attitude as signs of her shrewishness.
Conversely, Neesima himself admired her strong, independent character. In a letter to his friends in the United States, he famously described her way of life as "handsome" (ハンサム_Hansamu^Japanese). This term, when applied to Yae, became a distinctive part of her public image, leading to her being referred to as the "Original Handsome Woman" (元祖ハンサム・ウーマン_{Ganso Hansamu Wūman}^Japanese). These conflicting perceptions highlight Yae's defiance of rigid societal norms and her pioneering role in embodying a different kind of womanhood in a rapidly changing Japan.