M. S. Swaminathan

1.1. Birth and Family Background

Mankombu Sambasivan Swaminathan was born into a Tamil family in Kumbakonam, Madras Presidency, British India (now part of Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India), on 7 August 1925. He was the second son of M. K. Sambasivan, a general surgeon, and Parvati Thangammal Sambasivan. His parents were second-generation descendants of migrants from Thanjavur, with ancestral roots in Monkombu, Alappuzha, Kerala. This lineage explains the inclusion of 'Mankombu' in his full name. At the age of 11, following his father's death, Swaminathan was raised by his paternal uncle. From a young age, he engaged with farming and farmers, as his extended family cultivated rice, mangoes, and coconuts, later diversifying into crops like coffee. These interactions exposed him to the significant impact of crop price fluctuations and the devastating effects of weather and pests on both harvests and family incomes.

1.2. Education

Swaminathan received his early education at a local high school and subsequently at the Catholic Little Flower High School in Kumbakonam, where he matriculated at age 15. Initially, his parents encouraged him to pursue medicine, leading him to begin his higher education in zoology. However, witnessing the profound impact of the Bengal famine of 1943 during World War II and the widespread rice shortages across the Indian subcontinent deeply influenced him. This experience led him to commit his life to ensuring food sufficiency for India. Despite his family's background and a prevailing societal preference for medicine and engineering, he chose to specialize in agriculture, demonstrating an early dedication to public welfare.

He completed his undergraduate degree in zoology at Maharaja's College in Trivandrum, Kerala (now University College, Thiruvananthapuram at the University of Kerala). From 1940 to 1944, he attended the University of Madras (Madras Agricultural College, now the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University), where he earned a Bachelor of Science degree in agricultural science. During this period, he was also mentored by Cotah Ramaswami, a professor of agronomy.

In 1947, he moved to the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) in New Delhi to pursue studies in genetics and plant breeding. He obtained a post-graduate degree with high distinction in cytogenetics in 1949, with his research particularly focusing on the genus Solanum, especially potatoes. Social pressures prompted him to compete for civil services examinations, through which he was selected for the Indian Police Service. Concurrently, a UNESCO fellowship in genetics in the Netherlands presented an opportunity in the agricultural field, which Swaminathan ultimately chose over a career in policing.

1.3. International Studies and Research

Swaminathan's international educational and research experiences profoundly shaped his scientific and humanitarian perspectives, integrating global insights into his mission for agricultural development in India.

He served as a UNESCO fellow at the Institute of Genetics within the Wageningen Agricultural University in the Netherlands for eight months. His work focused on adapting genes to provide resilience against parasites like the golden nematode and to develop cold-resistant potato varieties, a critical need due to altered crop rotations during World War II. This research proved successful. The ideological environment at Wageningen significantly influenced his subsequent scientific pursuits in India concerning food production. During this time, he also visited the Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research in war-torn Germany, an experience that deeply resonated with him. A decade later, he observed Germany's remarkable infrastructural and energetic transformation, further inspiring his vision for agricultural reform.

In 1950, he continued his studies at the Plant Breeding Institute of the University of Cambridge School of Agriculture in the United Kingdom. He completed his Doctor of Philosophy degree in 1952, submitting a thesis titled "Species Differentiation, and the Nature of Polyploidy in certain species of the genus Solanum - section Tuberarium." In December of that year, he spent a week with Frank Lugard Brayne, a former Indian Civil Service officer, whose extensive experience with rural India would later influence Swaminathan's work.

Following his studies in the UK, Swaminathan spent 15 months in the United States of America. He took up a post-doctoral research associateship at the University of Wisconsin-Madison's Laboratory of Genetics, where he assisted in establishing a USDA potato research station. The laboratory notably included Nobel laureate Joshua Lederberg on its faculty. His associateship concluded in December 1953. Despite receiving an offer for a faculty position, Swaminathan declined, driven by his resolute commitment to return to India and contribute directly to its agricultural advancement.

2.1. Activities at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI)

At IARI, Swaminathan was instrumental in advancing cytogenetics and plant breeding. His early research focused on potato, where his explanation and analysis of its origin and evolutionary processes were significant. He clarified the potato's origin as an autotetraploid and detailed its cell division behavior, alongside important findings related to polyploids. This foundational research facilitated a greater ability to transfer genes from wild species to cultivated potatoes. During his post-doctoral work at the University of Wisconsin, he helped develop a frost-resistant potato variety. His genetic analysis of potatoes, including the traits governing yield and growth, was crucial for increasing productivity. He employed a multi-disciplinary systems approach that integrated various genetic aspects.

In the 1950s and 1960s, Swaminathan conducted basic research into the cytogenetics of hexaploid wheat. He also played a key role in the development of the world's first high-yielding basmati rice.

2.2. Leading the Green Revolution

Swaminathan's collaboration with Norman Borlaug was pivotal in spearheading the green revolution in India. Borlaug toured India and provided Mexican dwarf wheat varieties, which were then crossbred with Japanese varieties. Initial experimental plots showed promising results, yielding high-quality, disease-free crops. Although farmers were initially hesitant to adopt the new, unusually high-yielding variety, Swaminathan's persistent requests led to funding for small demonstration plots in 1964. A total of 150 plots, each 2.5 acre ^{(1 ha)} in size, were planted, alleviating farmers' anxieties and demonstrating the varieties' potential. Further modifications were made in the laboratory to adapt the grain better to Indian conditions. The successful sowing of these new wheat varieties led to a production surge in 1968, reaching 17.00 M t, an increase of 5.00 M t over the previous harvest.

Before receiving his Nobel Prize in 1970, Norman Borlaug lauded Swaminathan's contributions, stating:
"The Green Revolution has been a team effort and much of the credit for its spectacular development must go to the Indian officials, organizations, scientists, and farmers. However, to you, Dr. Swaminathan, a great deal of the credit must go for first recognizing the potential value of the Mexican dwarfs. Had this not occurred, it is quite possible that there would not have been a Green Revolution in Asia."

Other notable Indian agronomists and geneticists, including Gurdev Khush and Dilbagh Singh Athwal, also made significant contributions to India's Green Revolution. By 1971, the Government of India declared the nation self-sufficient in food production. This achievement allowed India and Swaminathan to address other critical issues such as food access, hunger, and nutrition. Swaminathan remained with IARI from 1954 to 1972.

2.3. Role as Administrator and Educator

In 1972, Swaminathan was appointed as the Director-General of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and simultaneously served as a secretary to the Government of India. In 1979, in a rare career progression for a scientist, he was elevated to the position of Principal Secretary, a senior role within the Government of India. The following year, he was transferred to the Planning Commission. As Director-General of ICAR, Swaminathan strongly advocated for technical literacy among farmers, establishing centers across India to facilitate this. During a period of widespread droughts, he formed groups to monitor weather and crop patterns, primarily to protect vulnerable populations from malnutrition. His two-year tenure at the Planning Commission was significant, as it led to the unprecedented inclusion of women and environmental concerns in development plans within India's Five Year Plans.

From the late 1950s onwards at ICAR, he taught courses in cytogenetics, radiation genetics, and mutation breeding. He also mentored numerous Borlaug-Ruan interns as part of the Borlaug-Ruan International Internship.

2.4. Chairman of the National Commission on Farmers

Swaminathan chaired the National Commission on Farmers, which was constituted in 2004. This commission was tasked with proposing comprehensive strategies to improve India's farming system and farmers' livelihoods. The commission's recommendations focused on ensuring a holistic approach to agricultural development, emphasizing aspects such as increased productivity, enhanced profitability for farmers, and the establishment of sustainable agricultural practices.

2.5. Rajya Sabha Membership

In 2007, President A. P. J. Abdul Kalam nominated Swaminathan to the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Parliament of India, where he served a single term until 2013. During his tenure as a Member of Parliament, he notably introduced the Women Farmers' Entitlements Bill 2011. Although the bill lapsed, one of its primary objectives was to secure formal recognition and rights for women farmers in India, highlighting his consistent advocacy for gender equality in agriculture.

3.1. Director General of the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)

In 1982, Swaminathan became the first Asian Director-General of the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in the Philippines, a position he held until 1988. During his leadership, he significantly contributed to advancements in rice research. A notable initiative during his tenure was organizing the international conference "Women in Rice Farming Systems," which underscored his commitment to gender issues in agriculture. For this effort, the United States-based Association for Women in Development honored Swaminathan with their inaugural award for "outstanding contributions to the integration of women in development." As Director-General, he raised awareness among rice-growing communities about maximizing the value of every part of the rice crop. His impactful leadership at IRRI played a crucial role in his being awarded the first World Food Prize in 1987.

3.2. International Organizations and Peace Activities

Swaminathan was deeply involved with numerous international organizations focused on global food security, environmental conservation, and peace. In 1984, he became the president of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and vice-president of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF). He also co-chaired the United Nations Millennium Project on hunger from 2002 to 2005. From 2002 to 2007, he served as the head of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, an organization dedicated to reducing the dangers of armed conflict and finding solutions to global security threats. His work consistently emphasized the interconnectedness of food security, environmental sustainability, and international peace.

In his later years, he also participated in initiatives aimed at bridging the digital divide and facilitating the dissemination of research findings to decision-makers in the fields of hunger and nutrition. Bruce Alberts, President of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, commented in 2005 that, even at 80, Swaminathan "retains all the energy and idealism of his youth, and he continues to inspire good behavior and more idealism from millions of his fellow human beings on this Earth." Swaminathan's personal goal was to achieve a hunger-free India by 2007.

4.1. Potato and Grain Research

In the 1950s, Swaminathan made a major contribution through his explanation and analysis of the origin and evolutionary processes of the potato. He elucidated its origin as an autotetraploid and described its cell division behavior, with his findings related to polyploids also being highly significant. His 1952 doctoral thesis focused on "Species Differentiation, and the Nature of polyploidy in certain species of the genus Solanum, section Tuberarium." This work led to an increased capacity to transfer genes from wild potato species to cultivated ones. The practical value of his potato research was demonstrated in the development of new potato varieties, including a frost-resistant one during his post-doctoral work at the University of Wisconsin. His genetic analysis of potatoes, which included the genetic traits governing yield and growth, was pivotal for increasing productivity, and his multi-disciplinary systems approach successfully integrated many different genetic facets.

For grains, Swaminathan conducted basic research into the cytogenetics of hexaploid wheat during the 1950s and 1960s. The wheat and rice varieties he developed in collaboration with Norman Borlaug were foundational to the Green Revolution. At IRRI, under Swaminathan's leadership, efforts were initiated to develop rice with C₄ carbon fixation capabilities, aiming for improved photosynthesis and water usage efficiency. He also contributed to the development of the world's first high-yielding basmati rice.

4.2. Radiation Botany and Mutation Research

The Genetics Division of the IARI, under Swaminathan's guidance, gained global recognition for its research on mutagens. He established a 'Cobalt-60 Gamma Garden' to facilitate studies on radiation mutation. Swaminathan's collaborations with prominent Indian nuclear scientists such as Homi J. Bhabha, Vikram Sarabhai, Raja Ramanna, and M. R. Srinivasan provided agricultural scientists access to facilities at the Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay (which later became the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre). His first PhD student, A. T. Natarajan, pursued his thesis in this area. A primary goal of this research was to enhance plant responsiveness to fertilizers and to demonstrate the practical application of crop mutations. Swaminathan's early basic research on the effects of radiation on cells and organisms laid part of the foundation for future redox biology. Rudy Rabbinge described Swaminathan's 1966 paper on neutron radiation in agriculture, presented at an International Atomic Energy Agency conference in the United States, as "epoch-making." The work conducted by Swaminathan and his colleagues was also highly relevant to the field of food irradiation.

9.1. Major Awards

Swaminathan was honored with numerous prestigious awards for his groundbreaking work. He received the Gregor Mendel Memorial Medal from the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences in 1965. His international accolades include the Ramon Magsaysay Award in 1971, where, upon acceptance, he quoted Seneca: "A hungry person listens neither to reason, nor to religion, nor is bent by any prayer." Other significant international awards include the Albert Einstein World Award of Science (1986), the inaugural World Food Prize (1987), the Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement (1991), the Four Freedoms Award (2000), and the Planet and Humanity Medal of the International Geographical Union (2000). In 2006, he received the B. P. Pal Centenary Award.

He was also conferred with several high state honors from various countries, including the Order of the Golden Heart of the Philippines, the Order of Agricultural Merit of France, the Order of the Golden Ark of the Netherlands, and the Royal Order of Sahametrei of Cambodia. China recognized him with the "Award for International Co-operation on Environment and Development." In the 'Dr Norman E. Borlaug Hall of Laureates' in Des Moines, Iowa, United States, a unique artwork of Swaminathan made from 250,000 pieces of glass stands as a tribute. The IRRI has named a building and a scholarship fund in his honor.

Nationally, one of his earliest recognitions was the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize in 1961. Subsequently, he received India's highest civilian awards: the Padma Shri, Padma Bhushan, and Padma Vibhushan. Other national honors include the H K Firodia award, the Lal Bahadur Shastri National Award, and the Indira Gandhi Prize. By 2016, he had accumulated 33 national and 32 international awards. In 2004, an agricultural think tank in India established an annual award in his name, the 'Dr. M.S. Swaminathan Award for Leadership in Agriculture'. In 2024, he was posthumously conferred the Bharat Ratna, the highest civilian award of the Republic of India. On this occasion, Prime Minister Narendra Modi stated: "It is a matter of immense joy that the Government of India is conferring the Bharat Ratna on Dr. MS Swaminathan Ji, in recognition of his monumental contributions to our nation in agriculture and farmers' welfare. He played a pivotal role in helping India achieve self-reliance in agriculture during challenging times and made outstanding efforts towards modernizing Indian agriculture. We also recognise his invaluable work as an innovator and mentor and encouraging learning and research among several students. Dr. Swaminathan's visionary leadership has not only transformed Indian agriculture but also ensured the nation's food security and prosperity. He was someone I knew closely and l always valued his insights and inputs."

9.2. Honorary Degrees and Fellowships

Swaminathan received an impressive 84 honorary doctorates and mentored numerous Ph.D. scholars. Indian universities such as Sardar Patel University (1970), Delhi University, and Banaras Hindu University conferred honorary degrees upon him. Internationally, he was honored by Technische Universität Berlin (1981) and the Asian Institute of Technology (1985). The University of Wisconsin also granted him an honorary doctorate in 1983. When the University of Massachusetts, Boston, awarded him a science doctorate, they highlighted the "magnificent inclusiveness of [Swaminathan's] concerns, by nation, socioeconomic group, gender, inter-generational, and including both human and natural environments." In 2014, Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge, where he earned his PhD in botany, made him an honorary fellow.

Swaminathan was elected a fellow of numerous science academies in India. Globally, he was recognized as a fellow by 30 academies of science and societies across the world, including those in the United States, the United Kingdom, Russia, Sweden, Italy, China, Bangladesh, and the European Academy of Arts, Science and Humanities. He was also a founder fellow of The World Academy of Sciences. The National Agrarian University in Peru granted him an honorary professorship.