Lugné-Poe

1.1. Birth and Name Change

Born Aurélien François Marie Lugné in 1869, he later adopted the stage name "Lugné-Poe" as a tribute to the American writer Edgar Allan Poe, reflecting an early inclination towards the imaginative and perhaps darker aspects of art that would later characterize his Symbolist leanings.

1.2. Early Theatre Activities

At the age of 17 in 1887, Lugné-Poe co-founded an amateur theatre group called Cercle des Escholiers with his friend Georges Bourdon. This group aimed to stage "unpublished or, at the very least, little-known works," indicating his early commitment to new and unconventional drama. Shortly thereafter, he joined André Antoine's Théâtre Libre, a subscriber-based independent theatre known for its Naturalist productions. During his association with Antoine's company, Lugné-Poe used various stage names such as "Philippon," "Delorme," and "Leroy."

1.3. Education and Early Career

Lugné-Poe pursued formal acting training at the Paris Conservatory under the tutelage of Comédie-Française star Gustave Worms, gaining admission in the fall of 1888 after an initial rejection. Despite his studies, tensions arose with Antoine, who often criticized his actors. A falling out during a tour in Belgium in early 1890 led Lugné-Poe to focus on his Conservatory studies, where he earned a First-Place certificate for Comedy. His theatrical ascent was temporarily halted by military service, but before his departure, he cultivated friendships with a group of painters known as Les Nabis, whose work he promoted through a series of articles.

Upon returning from an abbreviated military service in early spring 1891, Lugné-Poe joined Paul Fort's Théâtre d'Art, making his first appearance in Maurice Maeterlinck's L'Intruse. For the subsequent two years, he actively alternated between acting for the Théâtre d'Art and directing for his former company, Le Cercle des Escholiers. He performed in ten plays for Fort, notably interpreting the roles of the Old Man in Maeterlinck's L'Intruse (1891) and the First Blind Man in Les Aveugles (1891), as well as Satan in Jules Bois' Les Noces de Sathan (1892). He and Georgette Camée were instrumental in developing the distinctive Symbolist acting style, characterized by a sense of reverie, hieratic (stylized and ritualistic) movement and gestures, and solemn, psalmodized (chant-like) line readings. After the Théâtre d'Art ceased operations in March 1892, Lugné-Poe continued staging and acting in significant plays with the Cercle des Escholiers, culminating in a production of Ibsen's The Lady from the Sea in 1892. This was a crucial moment, as it was only the fourth Ibsen play translated into French to be performed in Paris, following Antoine's productions of Ghosts (1890) and The Wild Duck (1891), and Albert Carré's Hedda Gabler (December 1891). When Lugné-Poe later re-established the Théâtre d'Art as the Théâtre de l'Œuvre in 1893, he made Ibsen a cornerstone of his repertoire in Paris, premiering and often starring in nine of Ibsen's plays between 1893 and 1897.

2.1. Advocacy for Symbolist Theatre

Lugné-Poe emerged as a leading proponent of Symbolist theatre, a movement that stood in direct opposition to the Naturalistic approach championed by figures like André Antoine. He believed that theatre should evoke rather than explicitly depict, focusing on the spiritual, the poetic, and the subconscious. This philosophy aimed to create an immersive, dream-like atmosphere on stage, allowing for a deeper engagement with the play's themes and emotional resonance. His work emphasized the power of suggestion, mood, and stylized performance to convey meaning, moving away from the detailed, slice-of-life realism of Naturalism.

2.2. Introduction of Major Playwrights

A cornerstone of Lugné-Poe's work was his crucial role in introducing and staging the works of prominent Scandinavian and European playwrights to French audiences. He was instrumental in bringing the plays of Henrik Ibsen, August Strindberg, and Gerhart Hauptmann to Paris for the first time. His productions of Ibsen's plays, in particular, became a specialty of the Théâtre de l'Œuvre, significantly shaping the theatrical landscape and broadening the horizons of French drama. He also introduced the works of Maurice Maeterlinck and Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, further diversifying the repertoire available to Parisian theatregoers.

2.3. Symbolist Acting Style

Under Lugné-Poe's direction, a distinctive Symbolist acting style was developed and promoted. This style was characterized by its emphasis on creating a sense of reverie and inner life, often through highly stylized and ritualistic (hieratic) movements and gestures. Actors were encouraged to deliver their lines in a solemn, almost chant-like (psalmodized) manner, contributing to the overall atmospheric and non-realistic quality of the performances. This approach aimed to convey the symbolic and emotional depths of the plays, rather than merely presenting a naturalistic imitation of reality.

3.1. Founding and Early Activities

The Théâtre de l'Œuvre debuted with a single matinée performance of Maurice Maeterlinck's Pelléas et Mélisande at the Théâtre des Bouffes-Parisiens in May 1893. In its initial experimental phase, the company, much like Paul Fort's Théâtre d'Art before it, did not have a permanent stage. Its early engagements were held at various venues across Paris. For instance, the six productions of its second season were staged at the more distant Théâtre des Bouffes du Nord. There, Lugné-Poe premiered significant works such as Henrik Ibsen's Rosmersholm, An Enemy of the People, and The Master Builder, Gerhart Hauptmann's Lonely Lives, and Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson's Beyond Human Power. By May 1894, he began securing the Nouveau-Théâtre for productions like Henri Bataille and Robert d'Humières' Sleeping Beauty. He briefly assumed the directorship of the Nouveau-Théâtre for most of the 1894-95 season, staging works including John Ford's 'Tis Pity She's a Whore (adapted as Annabella by Maeterlinck), Beaubourg's The Mute Voice, August Strindberg's The Father, Śūdraka's The Little Clay Cart, and Maeterlinck's Interior. Despite temporary moves to venues like the Théâtre du Ménus-Plaisirs for productions such as Ibsen's Little Eyolf in May 1895, he consistently returned to the Nouveau-Théâtre, concluding that season with Ibsen's Brand.

3.2. Major Productions and Works

The Théâtre de l'Œuvre became renowned for its significant and often experimental productions, which profoundly influenced the development of modern theatre. The 1895-96 season saw the company reside at two locations, with the first half at the Comédie-Parisienne, featuring works like Thomas Otway's Venice Preserved, Kālidāsa's The Ring of Shakuntalā, and Oscar Wilde's controversial Salome.

From March 1896, the Théâtre de l'Œuvre established a more stable two-year residency at the Nouveau-Théâtre. During this period, the company premiered a series of groundbreaking plays, including Ibsen's Pillars of Society (June 22-23, 1896) and Peer Gynt (November 11-12, 1896), and most notably, Alfred Jarry's Ubu Roi (December 9-10, 1896). The production of Ubu Roi was particularly scandalous and revolutionary, marking a significant moment in the history of avant-garde theatre. Other notable premieres included Bjørnson's sequel to Beyond Human Power (January 25-26, 1897), Hauptmann's fairy drama The Sunken Bell (March 4-5, 1897), and Ibsen's Love's Comedy (June 22-23, 1897) and John Gabriel Borkman (November 8-9, 1897). The company also staged Nikolai Gogol's The Inspector General (January 7-8, 1898) and Romain Rolland's Aert (May 2-3, 1898) and The Wolves (May 18, 1898). By the close of the 19th century, Lugné-Poe's company had successfully established several Parisian theatres as venues for daring, challenging, and at times outrageous modern drama. His flexible eclecticism allowed him to stage plays considered "unperformable," such as those by Paul Claudel, alongside more conventional works, demonstrating his commitment to artistic freedom and innovation.

3.3. London Performance

In 1895, J. T. Grein and the Independent Theatre Society extended an invitation to Lugné-Poe and his troupe to present a season of their avant-garde productions in London. The Théâtre de l'Œuvre performed Ibsen's Rosmersholm and The Master Builder, as well as Maurice Maeterlinck's Symbolist plays L'Intruse and Pelléas et Mélisande, introducing British audiences to the innovative and often challenging works of the Symbolist movement.

4.1. Théâtre des Bouffes-Parisiens

• 1893: Pelléas et Mélisande (Maurice Maeterlinck)
• 1898: La Victoire (Bouhélier)
• 1898: Solness le constructeur (Henrik Ibsen, translated by Prozor)
• 1899: Entretien d'un philosophie avec la maréchale de XXX (Diderot)
• 1899: Le Triomphe de la raison (Rolland)

4.2. Théâtre des Bouffes du Nord

• 1893: Rosmersholm (Henrik Ibsen, translated by Prozor)
• 1893: Un Ennemi du peuple (Henrik Ibsen, translated by Chennevière and Johansen)
• 1893: Ames solitaires (Gerhart Hauptmann, translated by Cohen)
• 1894: L'Araignée de cristal (Rachilde)
• 1894: Au-dessus des forces humaines (Björnstjerne-Björnson, translated by Prozor)
• 1894: Une Nuit d'avril à Céos (Trarieux)
• 1894: L'Image (Beaubourg)
• 1894: Solness le construsteur (Henrik Ibsen, translated by Prozor)

4.3. Nouveau-Théâtre

• 1894: La Belle au bois dormant (Bataille and d'Humières)
• 1894: La Vie muette (Beaubourg)
• 1894: Père (August Strindberg, translated by Loiseau)
• 1894: Un Ennemi du peuple (Henrik Ibsen, translated by Chennevière and Johansen)
• 1895: Le Chariot de terre cuite (Barrucand)
• 1895: La Scène (Lebey)
• 1895: La Vérité dans levin ou les Désagréments de la galanterie (Collé)
• 1895: Intérieur (Maurice Maeterlinck)
• 1895: Brand (Henrik Ibsen, translated by Prozor)
• 1896: La Fleur palan enlevée (Arène)
• 1896: L'Errante (Quillard)
• 1896: La Dernière croisade (Gray)
• 1896: Hérakléa (Villeroy)
• 1896: La Brebis (Sée)
• 1896: Les Soutiens de la société (Henrik Ibsen, translated by Bertrand and Nevers)
• 1896: Peer Gynt (Henrik Ibsen)
• 1896: Ubu roi ou les Polonais (Alfred Jarry)
• 1896: Le Tandem (Trézenick and Soulaine)
• 1897: La Motte de terre (Dumur)
• 1897: Au delà des forces humaines (Björnstjerne-Björnson, translated by Monnier and Littmanson)
• 1897: La Cloche engloutie (Gerhart Hauptmann, translated by Hérold)
• 1897: Ton Sang (Bataille)
• 1897: Le Fils de l'abbesse (Herdey)
• 1897: La Comédie de l'amour (Henrik Ibsen, translated by Colleville and Zepelin)
• 1897: Jean-Gabriel Borkman (Henrik Ibsen, translated by Prozor)
• 1898: Le Revizor (Nikolai Gogol)
• 1898: Rosmersholm (Henrik Ibsen, translated by Prozor)
• 1898: Le Gage (Jourdain)
• 1898: L'Échelle (Zype)
• 1898: Le Balcon (Heiberg, translated by Prozor)
• 1898: Aërt (Rolland)
• 1898: Morituri ou les Loups (Rolland)
• 1899: Fausta (Sonniès)
• 1899: Le Joug (Mayrargue)
• 1900: La Cloître (Verhaeren)
• 1901: Le Roi candaule (André Gide)
• 1902: Monna Vanna (Maurice Maeterlinck)
• 1902: Manfred (Lord Byron, adapted by Forthuny)
• 1903: La Roussalka (Schuré)
• 1903: Le Maître de Palmyre (Wilbrandt, translated by Renon, Bénon, and Zifferer)
• 1903: L'Oasis (Jullien)
• 1904: Philippe II (Verhaeren)
• 1904: Polyphème (Samain)
• 1904: Oedipe à Colone (Sophocles, adapted by Gastambide)
• 1904: L'Ouvrier de la dernière heure (Guiraud)
• 1904: Les Droits du coeur (Jullien)
• 1904: Le Jaloux (Bibesco)
• 1905: La Gioconda (D'Annunzio, translated by Hérelle)
• 1905: La Fille de Jorio (D'Annunzio, translated by Hérelle)
• 1905: Dionysos (Gasquet)
• 1905: Dans les bas-fonds (Gorky, translated by Halperine-Kaminsky)
• 1906: Le Réformateur (Rod)
• 1906: Le Cloaque (Labry)

4.4. Comédie-Parisienne

• 1894: Frères (Bang, translated by Colleville and Zepelin)
• 1894: La Gardienne (Régnier)
• 1894: Les Créanciers (August Strindberg, translated by Loiseau)
• 1895: Venise sauvée (Otway, translated by Pène)
• 1895: L'Anneau de Çakuntala (Kalidasa, adapted by Hérold)
• 1896: Une Mère (Ameen, translated by Prozor)
• 1896: Brocéliande (Lorrain)
• 1896: Les Flaireurs (Lerberghe)
• 1896: Des mots! des mots! (Quinel and Dubreuil)
• 1896: Raphaël (Coolus)
• 1896: Salomé (Oscar Wilde)
• 1896: La Lépreuse (Henry Bataille)

4.5. Théâtre du Ménus-Plaisirs

• 1895: L'École de l'idéal (Vérola)
• 1895: Le Petit Eyolf (Henrik Ibsen, translated by Prozor)
• 1895: Le Volant (Paul Claudel)

4.6. Salle de Trianon

• 1906: Madame la marquise (Sutro)
• 1906: Le Troisième Couvert (Savoir)
• 1906: Leurs Soucis (Bahr)

4.7. Théâtre Marigny

• 1904: La Prophétie (Toussaint)
• 1906: Pan (Charles van Lerberghe)
• 1906: L'Héritier naturel (Keim)
• 1907: L'Amie des sages (Allou)
• 1907: Petit Jean (Buysieulx and Max)
• 1908: Hypatie (Barlatier)
• 1908: Acquitté (Antona-Traversi, translated by Lécuyer)
• 1908: Les Vieux (Rameil and Saisset)
• 1908: La Madone (Spaak)
• 1909: Le Roi bombance (Marinetti)
• 1909: Nonotte et Patouillet (du Bois)

4.8. Théâtre Grévin

• 1907: Une Aventure de Frédérick Lemaître (Basset)
• 1907: Placide (Séverin-Malfayde and Dolley)
• 1907: Zénaïde ou les caprices du destin (Delorme and Gally)

4.9. Théâtre Fémina

• 1907: La Tragédie florentine (Oscar Wilde)
• 1907: Philista (Battanchon)
• 1907: Le Droit au bonheur (Lemonnier and Soulaine)
• 1907: Un Rien (Valloton)
• 1907: Le Baptême (Savoir and Nozière)
• 1907: Mendès est dans la salle (Marchès and Vautel)
• 1908: La Loi (Jourda)
• 1908: Vae Victis (Duterme)
• 1908: Les Amours d'Ovide (Mouézy-Eon, Auzanet, and Faral)
• 1908: Au Temps des fées (Blanchard)
• 1908: Elektra (Hofmannsthal, adapted by Strozzi and Epstein)
• 1908: Le Jeu de la morale et du hasard (Bernard)
• 1908: La Dame qui n'est plus aux camélias (Faramond)
• 1909: Perce-Neige et les sept gnomes (Dortzal, Adapted from Snow White by the Brothers Grimm)
• 1909: La Chaîne (Level and Monnier)
• 1910: La Sonate à Kreutzer (Savoir and Nozière, adapted from Tolstoy)
• 1910: Le Mauvais Grain (Faramond)
• 1910: Le Poupard (Bouvelet)
• 1911: Malazarte (Aranha)

4.10. Théâtre Antoine

• 1911: Sur le seuil (Battanchon)
• 1911: Un Médecin de campagne (Bordeaux and Denarié)
• 1911: Les Oiseaux (Nozière)
• 1912: Anne ma soeur (Auzanet)
• 1912: La Charité s.v.p. (Speth)
• 1912: Futile (Bernouard)
• 1912: Le Visionnaire (Renaud)
• 1912: Ce Bougre d'original (Soulages)
• 1912: Le Candidat Machefer (Hellem and D'Estoc)
• 1912: Ariane blessée (Allou)
• 1912: Les Derniers Masques (Schnitzler, translated by Rémon and Valentin)
• 1914: La Danse des fous (Birinski, adapted by Rémon)

4.11. Théâtre du Palais-Royal

• 1912: La Dernière Heure (Frappa)
• 1912: Grégoire (Falk)
• 1912: Morituri (Prozor)

4.12. Théâtre Malakoff

• 1912: L'Annonce faite à Marie (Paul Claudel)
• 1913: La Brebis égarée (Jammes)
• 1914: L'Otage (Paul Claudel)

4.13. Théâtre de l'Œuvre (Cité Monthiers)

• 1894: Annabella (translated by Maurice Maeterlinck from 'Tis Pity She's a Whore by John Ford.)
• 1895: Les Pieds nickelés (Bernard)
• 1897: Le Fardeau de la liberté (Bernard)
• 1910: L'Amour de Kesa (Humières)
• 1920: La Couronne de carton (Sarment)
• 1920: Le Cocu magnifique (Crommelynck)
• 1921: Les Scrupules de Sganarelle (Régnier)
• 1921: Sophie Arnoux (Nigoud)
• 1921: Le Pêcheur d'ombres (Sarment)
• 1921: La Danse de mort (August Strindberg, translated by Rémon)
• 1921: Comité secret (Lourié)
• 1921: Madonna Fiamma (Ségur)
• 1922: L'Age heureux (Jacques Natanson)
• 1922: Dardamelle (Mazaud)
• 1922: Le Dilemme du docteur (George Bernard Shaw)
• 1922: La Dette de Schmil (Orna)
• 1922: Le Visage sans voile (Allou)
• 1922: Le Retour d'Ivering (Holt)
• 1922: Le Lasso (Batty-Weber)
• 1922: L'Enfant truqué (Natanson)
• 1923: La Dame allègre (Puig and Ferreter, translated by Pierat)
• 1923: La Messe est dite (Achard)
• 1923: Le Cadi et le cocu (Mille and Loria)
• 1923: Est-ce possible? (Birabeau)
• 1923: Passions de fantoches (San Secondo, translated by Mortier)
• 1923: On finit souvent par où on devrait commencer (Turpin)
• 1923: La Maison avant tout (Hamp)
• 1923: Berniquel (Maurice Maeterlinck)
• 1923: L'Autre Messie (Soumagne)
• 1924: Le Feu à l'Opéra (Kaiser, translated by Goll)
• 1924: Irène exigeante (Beaunier)
• 1924: Le Mort à cheval (Ghéon)
• 1924: La Farce des encore (Thuysbaert and Ghéon)
• 1924: L'Amour est un Étrange maître (Worms-Barretta)
• 1924: Philippe le zélé (Trintzius and Valentin)
• 1924: L'Égoïste (Orna)
• 1924: La Profession de Madame Warren (George Bernard Shaw)
• 1924: La Maison ouverte (Passeur)
• 1925: Le Génie camouglé (Fabri)
• 1925: La Femme de feu (Schoenherr, translated by Lindauer)
• 1925: La Traversée de Paris à la nage (Passeur)
• 1925: Une Demande en mariage (Anton Chekhov)
• 1925: Je Rectifie les visages (Trintzius and Valentin)
• 1925: La Fleur sous les yeux (Martini, translated by Ponzone)
• 1925: Tour à terre (Salacrou)
• 1926: Les Danseurs de gigue (Soumagne)
• 1926: Ariel (Marx)
• 1926: Poisson d'avril ou les griffes du destin (adapted from Colpartage, translated by Lindauer)
• 1926: La Jeune Fille de la popote (Passeur)
• 1926: L'Ancre noire (Brasseur)
• 1926: Ville moderne (Modave)
• 1927: L'Avons-nous tuée? (Datz)
• 1927: Le Déraillement du T.P. 33 (Hamp)
• 1927: Le Bourgeois romanesque (Blanchon)
• 1927: Un Homme en or (Ferdinand)
• 1927: Les Deux Amis (Savoir)
• 1927: Le Conditionnel passé (Bruyez)
• 1927: Un Homme seul (Sauvage)
• 1927: Une Bourgeoise (Francen)
• 1927: Télescopage (Demont)
• 1927: L'Ile lointaine (Ginisty)
• 1928: Madame Marie (Soumagne)
• 1928: La Halte sur la grand route (Jabès)
• 1928: La Foire aux sentiments (Ferdinand)
• 1928: Hommes du monde (Brasseur)
• 1928: Tu Pourrais ne pas m'aimer (Brasseur)
• 1928: Les Trois Langages (Charmel)
• 1928: Celui qui voulait jouer avec la vie (François)
• 1928: Le Cercle (Maugham, adapted by Carbuccia)
• 1929: Jules, Juliette et Julien (Bernard)

4.14. Other Paris Theatres

• 1895: Carmosine (Musset), Ministère du Commerce
• 1896: Le Grand Galeoto (Echegaray), home of Ruth Rattazzi
• 1898: Mesure pour mesure (William Shakespeare), Cirque d'été
• 1899: Noblesse de la terre (Faramond), Théâtre de la Renaissance
• 1899: Un Ennemi du peuple (Henrik Ibsen, translated by Chennevière and Johansen), Théâtre de la Renaissance
• 1900: Monsieur Bonnet (Faramond), Théâtre du Gymnase
• 1911: Le Philanthrope ou la Maison des amours (Bouvelet), Théâtre Réjane
• 1913: Le Baladin du monde occidental (Synge, translated by Bourgeois), Salle Berlioz

5.1. Theatre Founding and Stabilization

Initially, the Théâtre de l'Œuvre operated as a mobile troupe without a permanent venue. However, in 1920, Lugné-Poe successfully established a dedicated theatre space on Cité Monthiers in Paris, capable of seating approximately 4,000 people. This acquisition provided a stable and permanent base for his theatrical operations, allowing for greater consistency and development in his productions.

5.2. Directorial Style

Lugné-Poe's directorial approach in his later years continued to evolve, emphasizing a focus on acting and concise staging. He often adapted his productions to the available facilities, prioritizing the performance itself over elaborate sets or technical grandeur. This practical yet artistically driven style ensured that the essence of the play and the actors' interpretations remained at the forefront of his work.

5.3. Discovery of New Playwrights

A significant aspect of Lugné-Poe's legacy was his role in discovering and promoting emerging playwrights. He was instrumental in bringing new dramatic voices to the stage, including figures like Fernand Crommelynck and Armand Salacrou, by staging their innovative works. His commitment to nurturing new talent, from Crommelynck to Salacrou, ensured a continuous flow of fresh perspectives into French theatre, contributing significantly to its ongoing development.