Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus

2.1. Family and Childhood

The Aemilii Paulli were a distinguished branch of the Aemilia gens. Paullus's familial background ensured he received a privileged education and early exposure to public life, typical for a Roman nobleman destined for a political or military career. His later association with the historian Polybius, who tutored his sons, suggests a household valuing intellectual pursuits and a connection to prominent Greek scholarship.

3.1. Cursus Honorum

Paullus's career trajectory within the Roman Republic's political system unfolded as follows:

• Quaestor**: Inscriptions indicate his service as a quaestor, a financial administrator, likely by 195 BC. The following year, he served as one of three commissioners overseeing the establishment of a Roman colony at Crotone.
• Curule Aedile**: He was elected curule aedile in 193 BC. During his term, he levied significant fines from livestock owners, using the funds to dedicate offerings to the temple of Jupiter and to improve public infrastructure. This included flood control measures for the Tiber River and the construction of porticos at the Porta Trigemina and Porta Fontinalis.
• Augur**: Before his praetorship, Paullus was chosen as an augur, a priest who interpreted omens, likely in 192 BC.
• Praetor**: In 191 BC, he was elected praetor. He continued in this role with proconsular imperium in the following year, being assigned to Hispania Ulterior.
• First Consulship**: Despite experiencing several defeats in consular elections, Paullus was ultimately elected consul for the first time in 182 BC. His colleague was Gnaeus Baebius Tamphilus. Both consuls were assigned to operations in Liguria. After securing a victory there, the Ligurians attempted to surrender to Marcellus in Gaul, but the Senate ordered both consuls to disarm them. Tamphilus returned to Rome for elections, while Paullus remained in Pisae for the winter.
• Proconsular Command in Liguria**: In 181 BC, Paullus continued his command in Liguria with proconsular imperium. He encountered the Ingauni tribe, with whom he made a truce. However, he was ambushed and pushed back into his camp. With his colleague and Marcellus unable to provide immediate assistance, emergency forces were raised in Rome. Paullus, deeming the rescue slow, decided to launch a counterattack. He exhorted his troops, comparing the elusive brigands to the formidable enemies like Hannibal, Philip V, and Antiochus III the Great whom Rome had faced. He decisively defeated the unsuspecting enemy and suppressed piracy. A three-day thanksgiving festival was held in Rome, and Paullus's army was disbanded.
• Defense of Hispanians**: In 171 BC, Paullus, along with figures like Cato the Censor and Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Corculum, defended the people of Hispania Citerior and Ulterior in the Senate against exploitation by Roman governors. Some governors were acquitted, while others went into exile.

3.2. Early Military Activities

Before his engagement in the Third Macedonian War, Paullus's early military career included campaigns against the Lusitanians in the Hispania provinces from 191 BC to 189 BC. While he initially suffered a defeat against them, he achieved a victory in the following year. His subsequent campaign against the Ingauni of Liguria as proconsul also showcased his tactical resilience and determination, solidifying his reputation as a capable military leader.

4.1. Second Consulship (168 BC) and Battle of Pydna

The Third Macedonian War erupted in 171 BC, when King Perseus of Macedon defeated a Roman army led by Consul Publius Licinius Crassus at the Battle of Callinicus. After two years of indecisive outcomes, Paullus was elected consul again in 168 BC, alongside Gaius Licinius Crassus. The Roman Senate appointed him to take charge of the Macedonian conflict.
Shortly after assuming command, on June 22, Paullus achieved a decisive victory at the Battle of Pydna. During the battle, an anecdote recounts that Paullus ordered foreign soldiers who had deserted from Perseus's army to be trampled by elephants as a brutal spectacle, echoing a similar act attributed to Scipio Africanus. Another tactic involved a feigned retreat to lure the enemy, and when that failed, Roman cavalry crossed the front of the Macedonian phalanx, breaking the enemy's sarissa spears and demoralizing them. This strategic brilliance led to Perseus's capture, effectively ending the Third Macedonian War and the Antigonid dynasty's long reign in Macedon. Masinissa's son, Misagenes, also participated in this pivotal battle, and after the victory, despite encountering a storm on his return journey, the Senate took great care to compensate his cavalry and ensure his well-being.

4.2. Post-War Settlement and Sack of Epirus

Following the decisive victory over Macedon, Paullus embarked on a tour of Greece, where he restored autonomy to various cities and replaced a statue of Perseus at Delphi with one of himself. He also visited the magnificent Statue of Olympian Zeus crafted by Phidias. When a ten-man commission arrived from Rome, it was decided that Macedon's autonomy would be restored, and its tribute would be halved. To commemorate this, Paullus hosted a grand festival, remarking to astonished onlookers that conducting a battle and organizing a festival required similar meticulous care. It is noted that he showed no interest in Perseus's amassed treasures, ordering them to be deposited directly into the state treasury, and instead focused his attention on books.

However, the post-war settlement also involved a grim order from the Roman Senate. In 167 BC, Paullus was instructed to return to Rome after first pillaging Epirus, a kingdom suspected of sympathizing with Macedon. Despite his personal disinclination, Paullus marched his army into Epirus. He ordered the inhabitants to surrender their possessions on a specified day, but when the day arrived, his soldiers were unleashed in a systematic plunder. Within approximately one hour, seventy towns were ravaged, resulting in the enslavement of 150,000 people, a brutal act of collective punishment. Despite the immense plunder, the soldiers themselves received only a minimal share, leading to widespread discontent among them. After this devastating task, Paullus returned to Rome, sailing up the Tiber River on the Macedonian royal galley, attracting a large crowd of onlookers.

4.3. Roman Triumph and the Agnomen 'Macedonicus'

Paullus's return to Rome was initially met with resistance, largely due to the soldiers' dissatisfaction over their small share of the immense plunder from Macedon and Epirus. Servius Sulpicius Galba, a military tribune, spearheaded the opposition to Paullus's proposed Roman triumph. The matter was put to a public vote in the assembly, and when the first voting tribe voted against it, a wave of despair swept through the populace. However, Marcus Servilius Plecus Geminus, a former consul, successfully persuaded the soldiers, leading to the approval of the triumph's celebration.

The triumph itself was exceptionally magnificent, a spectacle described in detail by Plutarch. It featured the immense plunder from Macedon and Epirus, and most notably, the captured King Perseus and his children, who were paraded before the Roman populace, evoking widespread pity. Though Perseus pleaded not to be paraded, Paullus coldly refused, despite having treated him with decorum and offering words of encouragement in Greek immediately after his surrender.
The success of Paullus's military and political career was tragically overshadowed by personal loss: his two youngest sons died one after the other around the time of his triumph, at the ages of 14 and 9 respectively. Plutarch poignantly remarked that "Perseus, though defeated, had children left, while Aemilius, though victorious, lost his." Paullus, in a later speech, is said to have declared that he had prayed to the gods to inflict any harm on him rather than on the Roman people, and that his prayer had been answered through this personal tragedy.
For his immense contributions, the Senate awarded Paullus the cognomen Macedonicus, in recognition of his conquest of Macedon. This marked the pinnacle of his distinguished career. His victory also significantly enriched the Roman treasury, leading to the abolition of the special war tax (tributum), which, according to Plutarch, was not reinstated until 43 BC. Despite the vast wealth brought into Rome, Paullus himself was said to have died relatively poor, having kept little for himself from the Macedonian campaign.

Two notable anecdotes are associated with his victory:

• Before the war, Paullus returned home to find his daughter Tertia saddened by the death of her pet puppy, Persa. This was interpreted as an omen foreshadowing the downfall of King Perseus.
• The victory was purportedly announced to a young man in Reate by the twin gods, the Divine Twins, riding white horses. Initially disbelieved, the story was later confirmed, and the young man was honored. This tale is said to be the origin of the Ahenobarbus family's surname.

5.1. Censorship (164 BC)

In 164 BC, Paullus was elected censor, holding this prestigious office with Quintus Marcius Philippus. During his censorship, a census was successfully conducted, recording a total of 337,022 people (Roman citizens). He also re-appointed Marcus Aemilius Lepidus as Princeps senatus, the leading member of the Senate. It is believed that Paullus also served as an Interrex in 162 BC.

6.1. Marriages and Children

Paullus was married twice. His first marriage was to Papiria Masonis (or Papiria Masonia), the daughter of the consul Gaius Papirius Maso. According to Plutarch, he divorced her for no particular reason, likely around 183-182 BC, while his younger son was still an infant. From this marriage, they had four children: two sons and two daughters.
He then married a second time, though the name of this wife remains unknown. From this second union, he had two more sons, the elder born around 181 BC and the younger around 176 BC, and another daughter, Aemilia Tertia, who was still a young girl when he was elected consul for the second time.

6.2. Adoption of Sons

Given that he had four sons, which was considered too many for a father to support through the demanding Roman cursus honorum, Paullus made the decision to give his two eldest sons up for adoption. This likely occurred between 175 and 170 BC.

• The elder son was adopted into the distinguished Fabia gens and became Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus, thereby aligning his future with the illustrious house of Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, a celebrated national hero.
• The younger son, possibly named Lucius, was adopted by his own cousin, Publius Cornelius Scipio, the elder son and heir of Scipio Africanus. This adoption meant he became Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus, inheriting the legacy of Rome's most influential political dynasty.

6.3. Fate of Children and Descendants

Paullus had intended for his two youngest sons to continue his own name and direct lineage. However, both of them died young, one shortly after the other, tragically at the same time that Paullus was celebrating his grand triumph. According to Polybius, the elder of these two remaining sons was 14, and the younger was 9. Their names are not recorded in historical accounts. Thus, the immense successes of his political and military career were contrasted by significant personal heartache and the loss of his direct male heirs.

Upon Paullus's death, his adopted sons, Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus and Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Aemilianus, inherited his property through his will, even though they were no longer legally Aemilii Paulli. Scipio generously gave his share to his older brother, Fabius, who was less wealthy. Paullus's second wife, whose name is unknown, received her dowry back from the sale of some of her late husband's property. Both Livy and Polybius recorded that Paullus died relatively poor, having retained little for himself from the successful Macedonian campaign.

With Paullus's death, the direct branch of the Aemilii Paulli became extinct, despite him having two living sons, because they had been adopted into other families. However, descendants continued through these adopted lines:

• His elder surviving son, Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus, eventually became consul and had at least one son who also achieved the consulship as Quintus Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus in 121 BC. This individual may have been an ancestor of later Fabii who aligned themselves with figures like Julius Caesar and Augustus.
• His younger surviving son, Scipio Aemilianus, became more famous but died without known issue.

Paullus's first wife, Papiria Masonia, outlived her ex-husband. She benefited from property given to her by her younger son, according to Polybius. At her death, her property was divided between her sons, but Scipio, in turn, gave his share to his sisters.
Of Paullus's daughters:

• One of the eldest two married Quintus Aelius Tubero, from a relatively humble plebeian family, and was the mother of Quintus Aelius Tubero.
• The youngest, Aemilia Paulla Tertia, married the eldest son of Marcus Porcius Cato and became the mother of two consuls, Marcus Porcius Cato and Gaius Porcius Cato. It is noted that Paullus himself lived a modest life, possessing only one farm.

8.1. Historical Significance and Positive Assessments

Paullus is widely remembered for his strategic brilliance and military accomplishments, particularly his decisive victory in the Third Macedonian War, which secured Rome's dominance over the Hellenistic world. His campaigns brought immense wealth into the Roman treasury, so much so that the special war tax was abolished for many years. He was admired for his personal integrity, particularly his disinterest in personal enrichment from the vast spoils of war, choosing instead to prioritize the state treasury and his intellectual pursuits. His dedication to Roman values and his dignified acceptance of personal tragedy were often held up as examples of admirable Roman character.

8.2. Criticisms and Controversies

Despite his acclaimed achievements, Paullus's legacy is not without significant criticism and controversy, particularly concerning his post-war actions.

• The Sack of Epirus**: The most glaring criticism centers on the systematic pillaging of seventy towns in Epirus and the subsequent enslavement of 150,000 people under his command. While acting under Senate orders, this act, carried out with ruthless efficiency and resulting in immense human suffering, stands as a stark example of the brutality inherent in Roman expansion and raises serious questions about human rights violations during his campaigns.
• Treatment of Macedonian Dissenters**: His actions included the massacre of 500 members of the opposing faction in Macedon and the forced relocation of many others to Rome, demonstrating a harsh approach to suppressing dissent and consolidating Roman control.
• Soldiers' Discontent**: The severe discontent among his own soldiers over the paltry share of the immense plunder, which nearly prevented his triumph, highlights a perceived lack of fairness in the distribution of spoils, reflecting a disconnect between the general's priorities and the expectations of his troops.
• Coldness Towards Perseus**: His cold refusal of King Perseus's pleas not to be paraded in the triumph, despite previous courteous treatment, suggests a pragmatic and at times ruthless demeanor, prioritizing the spectacle of victory over compassion for a defeated monarch.

These aspects of Paullus's conduct present a more complex and critical view of his character, emphasizing the ethical dilemmas and human cost associated with Roman conquest.