1. Overview
Laura Maria Caterina Bassi Veratti (1711-1778) was an Italian physicist and academic, widely recognized as a pioneering figure who significantly challenged societal norms for women in academia. Depicted as "Minerva," the Roman goddess of wisdom, Bassi achieved groundbreaking milestones, becoming the first woman to earn a doctorate in science and the second woman globally to receive a Doctor of Philosophy degree. Her appointment as a professor at the University of Bologna marked her as the first salaried female university teacher, where she eventually became the highest-paid employee. Bassi's career was characterized by her crucial role in popularizing Newtonian mechanics in Italy and her extensive experimental research, particularly in electricity. Despite facing restrictions on public lectures due to her gender, she established a vibrant private teaching and research environment, culminating in her appointment to the prestigious Chair of Experimental Physics at the age of 65. Her enduring legacy includes inspiring future generations of women in science and contributing significantly to the advancement of gender equality in intellectual pursuits.
2. Early Life and Education
Laura Bassi was born in Bologna, Italy, in 1711, to a prosperous lawyer, Giuseppe Bassi, and his wife, Maria Rosa Cesari. While some sources indicate her birth on October 20, 31, or November 29, the University of Bologna and scholarly works generally agree on October 29, 1711. She was the only surviving child among her siblings, prompting her father to ensure she received an exceptional education.
2.1. Childhood and Tutelage
Bassi's education began at the age of five, conducted privately. Her cousin, Father Lorenzo Stegani, taught her Latin, French, and mathematics. Stegani's instruction went beyond typical Latin reading, enabling Bassi to speak and write fluently in the language, which proved invaluable for her later academic career, as she lectured and published in Latin. From the age of thirteen to twenty, she continued her studies under Gaetano Tacconi, the family physician and a professor of medicine at the University of Bologna. Tacconi tutored her in philosophy, metaphysics, logic, and natural philosophy. However, Bassi's interest began to shift towards Newtonian science, a divergence from Tacconi's preference for Cartesian teachings, which led to a gradual estrangement between them. Her intellectual prowess and comprehensive education were noticed by Prospero Lorenzini Lambertini, who became the Archbishop of Bologna in 1731 and later Pope Benedict XIV, and who subsequently became her official patron.
3. Academic Achievements and Recognition
Laura Bassi's academic career was marked by several significant breakthroughs that challenged the prevailing norms for women in academia and advanced gender equality in education. Her public defense of theses and subsequent appointments at the University of Bologna established her as a leading intellectual figure of her time.
3.1. Doctorate and Professorial Appointment
In 1732, at the age of twenty, Bassi publicly defended forty-nine theses on Philosophica Studia at the Sala degli Anziani of the Palazzo Pubblico in Bologna. This event, arranged by her patron Prospero Lambertini, involved a public debate with four professors from the University of Bologna, including Gabriele Manfredi, Jacopo Bartolomeo Beccari, and Francesco Maria Zanotti. On May 12, 1732, the University of Bologna awarded her a doctoral degree in philosophy, making her the first woman to receive a doctorate in science and the second woman in the world to earn a philosophy doctorate, following Elena Cornaro Piscopia in 1678. She was popularly known as "Bolognese Minerva" due to her exceptional intellect. A month later, on June 27, 1732, Bassi defended twelve additional theses at the Archiginnasio of Bologna, a petition for a teaching position. Her theses covered a wide range of subjects, including chemistry, physics, hydraulics, mathematics, and mechanics. On October 29, 1732, the Senate and the University of Bologna granted her candidature, and in December, she was appointed professor of natural philosophy, becoming the world's first salaried female university lecturer. She also became the first woman elected to the Academy of Sciences of the Institute of Bologna on March 20, 1732.
4. Marriage and Family
On February 7, 1738, Laura Bassi married Giuseppe Veratti, a doctor of medicine and a fellow lecturer in anatomy at the University of Bologna. Their marriage was characterized by a sophisticated working relationship, with their shared academic interests reportedly inspiring Bassi to delve into experimental physics. The exact number of their children varies in historical accounts, with some reports stating eight and others twelve. Baptismal records indicate eight children. Three of their children-Caterina (born 1739), Caterina (born 1742), and Flaminio (born 1751)-died in infancy. However, five children survived to adulthood: Giovanni (1738-1800), who became a canon of San Petronio and a professor of theology; Ciro (1744-1827); Caterina (1745-1768), who became a nun; Giacomo (1749-1818), who also became a canon; and Paolo (1753-1831), who became a doctor and a professor of experimental physics at the Institute of Science, and was the only one to produce heirs.
5. Career at the University of Bologna
Laura Bassi's career at the University of Bologna was a complex journey marked by both groundbreaking appointments and significant challenges, as she navigated a male-dominated academic environment while striving to advance scientific knowledge.
5.1. Initial Professorship and Restrictions
After her appointment as professor of natural philosophy in December 1732, Bassi delivered her first lecture titled "De aqua corpore naturali elemento aliorum corporum parte universiLatin" (Water as a natural element of all other bodies). Despite her professorial title, the University of Bologna maintained the societal expectation that women should primarily lead private lives. Consequently, Bassi faced restrictions on delivering public lectures, being more limited than her male counterparts. From 1746 to 1777, she was permitted to give only one formal dissertation per year, covering topics ranging from gravity to electricity. She is reported to have given at least thirty-one dissertations to the university. In 1739, her plea for normal teaching duties, supported by Lambertini and Flamino Scarselli, the secretary to the Bolognese ambassador at the papal court, was denied. However, she was later granted permission to conduct private lessons and received funds for experiments at her home in 1759. This arrangement allowed her to circumvent university constraints and explore new scientific ideas with greater freedom. As a politically symbolic figure, Bassi was also expected to attend various public events, such as the Carnival Anatomy, a public dissection that attracted many foreigners and important community members. She began attending this annual event in 1734.
5.2. Private Lectures and Experimental Research
The permission to conduct private lessons at home became a pivotal aspect of Bassi's career, enabling her to pursue experimental research with greater autonomy. From 1749, and more formally from 1759, she opened her home for private lectures in experimental physics, which became highly successful and continued for nearly two decades. During the 1760s, Bassi and her husband, Giuseppe Veratti, actively collaborated on experimental research, particularly in the field of electricity. Their work attracted notable scientists, including Jean-Antoine Nollet, to Bologna to study electricity. This collaborative research significantly advanced the understanding of electrical phenomena. Bassi also faced financial constraints in conducting her experiments. In a letter to Flaminio Scarselli on July 16, 1755, she expressed despair over the continuous expenses. Despite these challenges, she and Domenico Galeazzi were among the highest-paid employees at the university, earning 1.20 K ITL annually, which she often used to acquire new experimental equipment.
5.3. Chair of Experimental Physics
In 1772, Paolo Balbi, the professor of experimental physics, died suddenly. Although Bassi's husband, Giuseppe Veratti, had served as Balbi's longtime assistant, Bassi believed she was the most qualified to fill the vacancy. In 1776, at the age of 65, she was appointed to the prestigious Chair of Experimental Physics by the Bologna Institute of Sciences. This appointment recognized her lifelong dedication and expertise in the field. Her husband, Giuseppe Veratti, served as her teaching assistant in this role. Bassi held this esteemed position for two years until her death in 1778, having dedicated her life to science and significantly advanced the status of women in academic circles.
6. Scientific Research and Contributions
Laura Bassi's scientific work was instrumental in disseminating new ideas in Italy and contributed significantly to the experimental understanding of physics, particularly in the burgeoning field of electricity.
6.1. Popularization of Newtonian Mechanics
Bassi played a crucial role in introducing and promoting the scientific ideas of Isaac Newton and Newtonian mechanics within Italy. She was one of the key figures responsible for popularizing Newton's physics and natural philosophy through her lectures and academic activities. For 28 years, she taught courses on Newtonian physics, a subject that was not initially part of the standard university curriculum. To address this, she offered private lessons from her home. She was known to use Émilie du Châtelet's physics textbook in her lectures, further contributing to the Enlightenment's scientific discourse in Italy.
6.2. Key Research Areas
Bassi's primary areas of scientific interest and experimental investigation included hydraulics and mechanics, but she was particularly engaged with electricity. She conducted extensive hands-on experiments, often in collaboration with her husband, Giuseppe Veratti. Their joint research on electricity, especially in the 1760s, was highly influential, attracting other scientists to Bologna to study the subject. Bassi's work on electricity, conducted around the 1740s, was contemporaneous with that of Benjamin Franklin. She also explored the potential therapeutic effects of electricity, contributing to her husband's widely recognized papers on electrotherapy. Throughout her career, Bassi authored 28 papers, predominantly on physics and hydraulics, though she did not publish any books. Only four of her papers were printed during her lifetime.
6.3. Academic Correspondence and Influence
Laura Bassi maintained an extensive network of correspondence with prominent scientists and intellectuals across Europe, which significantly shaped her career and disseminated her work. Her correspondents included renowned figures such as Voltaire, Cesare Beccaria, Francesco Algarotti, Roger Boscovich, Charles Bonnet, Jean-Antoine Nollet, Paolo Frisi, Lazzaro Spallanzani, and Alessandro Volta. Voltaire famously wrote to her, stating, "There is no Bassi in London, and I would be much happier to be added to your Academy of Bologna than that of the English, even though it has produced a Newton." Francesco Algarotti, who published his Neutonianismo per le dame ("Newtonism for Ladies") in 1737, also penned several poems celebrating her degree ceremonies.
Her public defense, awarding ceremony, and first lecture in 1732 were major events, taking place in the Palazzo Pubblico, a significant government building in Bologna. These events were attended not only by university faculty and students but also by key political and religious figures of the city, including the Papal legate, the Archbishop of Bologna, the Gonfaloniere, senators, magistrates, and "all the ladies of Bologna and all the nobility."
Cardinal Prospero Lambertini, who later became Pope Benedict XIV, was one of her most important patrons. He consistently supported her scientific work and intervened when other members of the institute attempted to segregate Bassi from her fellow professors. In 1745, Pope Benedict XIV established an elite group of 25 scholars known as the Benedettini. Bassi actively sought membership in this group, despite mixed reactions from other academics. Ultimately, Benedict XIV appointed her as an additional member, making her the only woman in the group, though she was not granted voting rights alongside the male members.
7. Published Works
Despite her extensive teaching and experimental work, coupled with administrative duties, family responsibilities, and frequent illnesses related to childbirth, Laura Bassi published a limited number of works. These publications represent only a fraction of her contributions to the University of Bologna. Her scientific works were comprehensively summarized in Domenico Piani's 1852 treatise, Catalogo dei Lavori dell'Antica Accademia, raccolti sotto i singoli autori.
Her published works include:
- De aqua corpore naturali elemento aliorum corporum parte universi (Concerning bodies of water as natural elements of other parts of the universe), a collection of theses for her university appointment, published in 1732.
- Four works that appeared in De Bononiensi Scientiarum et Artium Instituto atque Academia Commentarii (Commentaries of the Bologna Institute and the Academy of Arts and Sciences):
- De aeris compressione (Concerning air pressure, 1745)
- De problemate quodam hydrometrico (Concerning certain problems in hydrometrics, 1757)
- De problemate quodam mechanico (Concerning certain problems in mechanics, 1757)
- De immixto fluidis aere (Concerning intermixed gaseous fluid), posthumously published in 1792.
Other notable papers, some of which may not have been formally published but were significant, include:
- Sopra la compressione dell'aria (1746) (On the understanding of air)
- Sopra le bollicelle che si osservano nei fluidi (1747 and 1748) (On observing bubbles in fluids)
- Sopra l'uscita dell'acqua dai fori di un vaso (1753 and 1754) (On water flowing from holes in a vessel)
- Sopra alcune esperienze d'elettricità (1761) (On certain experiments with electricity)
- Prodromo di una serie di esperienze da fare per perfezionare l'arte della tentura (1769) (Introduction to a series of experiments to perfect the art of dyeing, or on the treatment of connected bodies corresponding to the acting force)
- Sopra l'elettricità vindice (1771) (On electrical proof)
- Sopra il fuoco e la facilità dei vari fluidi di riceverlo (1775) (On fire and the ease with which various fluids receive it)
- Su la relazione della fiamma all'aria fissa (1776) (On the relationship of flame to fixed air, or on flags fluttering in the wind)
- Sopra la proprietà che hanno molti corpi, che ritenendo più degli altri il calore, ritengono più degli altri ancora l'elettricità (1777) (On the property of many bodies that retain more heat and electricity than others, or on the annual anatomy report and the reaction of gold leaf to heat and the reaction of an electrified anchor).
8. Honors and Awards
Laura Bassi received numerous honors and awards throughout her lifetime, acknowledging her esteemed position in the scientific community. A bronze medal was awarded to Bassi by painter Domenico Maria Fratta and engraver Antonio Lazzari to celebrate her first series of classes titled "Pubblica Docente e Collegiata." One side of the medal displayed Bassi's image, while the other bore the Latin phrase "Soli cui fas vidisse MinervamLatin", which translates to "Only you can see Minerva". After her death, a marble statue was created in her memory and placed above the Nautical Room in the Bologna Institute of Sciences.
Bassi was an elected member of many literary and scientific societies across Europe, engaging in extensive correspondence with eminent men of letters. Her memberships included:
- Accademia delle Scienze dell'Instituto di Bologna (1732)
- Accademia dei Dissonanti di Modena (1732)
- Universitá degli Apastiti, Firenze (1732)
- Accademia degli Arcadi di Roma (1737)
- Accademia dei Fluttuanti di Finale di Modena (1745)
- Accademia degli Ipocondriaci di Reggio Emilia (1750)
- Accademia degli Ardenti di Bologna (1752)
- Accademia degli Agiati di Rovereto (1754)
- Accademia dell'Emonia di Busseto (1754)
- Accademia degli Erranti di Fermo (1755)
- Accademia degli amanti della Botenica di Cortona (1758)
- Accademia Fulginia di Foligno (1760 and 1761)
- Accademia dei Teopneusti di Correggio (1763)
- Accademia dei Placidi di Recanati (1774)
She was also well-versed in classical, French, and Italian literature.
9. Death
Laura Bassi died on February 20, 1778, at the age of 66. Her health had been deteriorating, a condition attributed to her numerous pregnancies and complications from childbirth. The official cause of her death was recorded as attacco di petto, meaning an "attack in the chest," likely a heart attack. Her funeral was held at the Church of Corpus Domini, Bologna, where silver laurels were placed on her head, and members of the Benedettina paid tribute to her. She was interred in the church, located in Via Tagliapietre, in front of the tomb of her fellow scientist Luigi Galvani.
10. Legacy and Commemoration
Laura Bassi's enduring impact extends beyond her scientific contributions, cementing her legacy as a trailblazer for women in science and a symbol of intellectual achievement against societal barriers.
10.1. Commemorative Naming and Recognition
Numerous honors and commemorations reflect Bassi's lasting significance. A crater on Venus, measuring 19 mile (31 km) in diameter, is named in her honor. In her hometown of Bologna, a high school and a city street, Via Laura Bassi Veratti, bear her name. Since 2018, The Editing Press has offered the Laura Bassi Scholarship three times a year to junior academics, as well as master's and doctoral candidates.
In a significant recognition of her scientific contributions, the research icebreaker RRS Ernest Shackleton of the British Antarctic Survey was acquired by the Istituto Nazionale di Oceanografia e di Geofisica Sperimentale on May 9, 2019, and subsequently renamed Laura Bassi. In 2024, the ship hosted 12 New Zealand researchers as part of a prestigious international collaboration for the Programma Nazionale di Ricerche in Antartide (PNRA). On April 17, 2021, Google honored Bassi and her many achievements with a dedicated Google Doodle.
10.2. Impact on Women in Science
Laura Bassi's broader legacy lies in her role as a trailblazer for women in scientific and academic fields. Her achievements as the first woman to earn a science doctorate and the first salaried female university professor shattered significant barriers, demonstrating that women could excel in intellectual pursuits traditionally reserved for men. By establishing a successful career in a male-dominated institution and conducting pioneering experimental research, she provided a powerful example for subsequent generations of female scholars. Her life and work significantly contributed to the advancement of gender equality in intellectual pursuits, inspiring and empowering women to pursue scientific and academic careers.