Lambert of Italy

2.1. Birth and Lineage

Lambert was born around 880, likely in San Rufino. He was the son of Guy III of Spoleto, who was Duke of Spoleto and later King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor, and Ageltrude, daughter of Adelchis of Benevento, Duke of Benevento. Lambert's family boasted significant ancestral connections to the Carolingian dynasty. His great-grandmother, Adelaide of Lombardy, was a daughter of Pepin Carloman, who was a son of Charlemagne. Furthermore, his great-uncle, Lambert I of Nantes, was married to Rotilde, a daughter of Emperor Lothair I. These connections, though somewhat distant, provided a dynastic claim to legitimacy within the fragmented Carolingian world, which his father Guy III leveraged to pursue the Italian and imperial crowns.

2.2. Early Rule and Regency

Lambert's involvement in governance began early, as his father, Guy III, sought to solidify his own position and ensure a clear succession. In May 889, following Guy III's election as King of Italy in Pavia, Lambert was appointed as the imperial and Italian regent. This move aimed to establish him as a co-ruler and heir, a strategy Guy III consistently pursued despite initial papal reluctance.

In May 891, Guy III formally declared Lambert as co-emperor in Pavia. Lambert was subsequently consecrated and recognized as King of Italy by Pope Stephen V. However, Stephen V died the same year, and Pope Formosus succeeded him. Formosus, wary of the growing power of the Spoletan house, initially resisted recognizing Lambert's imperial claims. Despite Formosus's reluctance, Lambert, along with his father Guy III, traveled to Ravenna on April 30, 892, where they eventually compelled Formosus to reluctantly crown Lambert as co-emperor. This coronation was accompanied by a pact confirming the Donation of Pepin and other Carolingian gifts to the papacy, though Formosus remained deeply apprehensive of their influence.

Following Guy III's sudden death in November 894, Lambert became the sole King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor, as well as succeeding his father as Duke of Spoleto (as Lambert II). Being still young, he was placed under the regency of his mother, Ageltrude, who was known for her staunch anti-German sentiments and her strong influence over her son's policies.

3.1. Kingship and Imperial Coronation

Lambert's path to kingship and imperial dignity was closely tied to his father's ambitions. He was crowned King of Italy in May 891 at Pavia. His imperial coronation followed on April 30, 892, in Ravenna, where he was crowned joint emperor alongside his father by a reluctant Pope Formosus. This coronation was secured under duress, as Guy III exerted military pressure on the Pope. As part of this arrangement, Lambert and his father signed a pact with the pontiff, confirming the Donation of Pepin and subsequent Carolingian gifts to the papacy, a move intended to legitimize their rule in the eyes of the Church.

3.2. Papal Relations and Conflicts

Lambert's relationship with the papacy was a central and often contentious aspect of his reign. His interactions with Pope Formosus were particularly fraught. Despite crowning Lambert, Formosus secretly sought assistance from Arnulf of Carinthia, the East Frankish king, in 893, requesting him to intervene in Italy and liberate Rome, with the promise of the imperial crown. This act demonstrated Formosus's deep distrust of the Spoletan house.

After Guy III's death, Lambert and his mother Ageltrude traveled to Rome to secure papal confirmation of Lambert's imperial title. However, Formosus, still intent on crowning Arnulf, imprisoned Lambert and Ageltrude in the Castel Sant'Angelo. In February 896, Arnulf's forces took Rome by force, freeing Formosus, who then crowned Arnulf as King and Emperor, declaring Lambert deposed.

Following Formosus's death in April 896, Lambert and Ageltrude exerted their influence to ensure the election of Pope Stephen VI. This new Pope, under their sway, became a key instrument in their political retribution against Formosus. However, Stephen VI's actions were later overturned. In January 898, Pope John IX was elected, and he promptly rehabilitated Formosus, declaring the Cadaver Synod null and void. Despite this, Lambert convened a diet in Ravenna in February 898, where seventy bishops confirmed the validity of the 891 pact, declared Arnulf's coronation invalid, and reaffirmed Lambert's imperial title. They also legitimized John IX's election and confirmed Formosus's rehabilitation, attempting to bring a measure of stability to the chaotic papal politics.

3.3. Conflicts with External Powers

Lambert's reign was largely defined by his persistent military and political struggles against two formidable rivals: Arnulf of Carinthia and Berengar I of Italy.

In 893, Pope Formosus's appeal led Arnulf to send his son Zwentibold with a Bavarian army to Italy, where they joined forces with Berengar of Friuli. They initially defeated Guy III, but Guy's use of bribes and an outbreak of fever among the invading forces led to their withdrawal in the autumn. In early 894, Arnulf personally led an army across the Alps, conquering territory north of the Po River. Lambert, still young and under his mother's regency, found himself directly confronting Arnulf's ambitions.

After Guy III's death, Berengar I immediately re-occupied Pavia, but Lambert, with the strong support of his mother and loyalists, managed to expel Berengar's forces. Lambert also received support from Adalbert II of Tuscany, who menaced Berengar in Pavia. By January 895, Lambert was able to establish residence in the royal capital.

However, Arnulf's second campaign into Italy in October 895 posed a renewed threat. Arnulf quickly took Pavia and slowly advanced, gathering support among the nobility of Tuscany, including Adalbert II, who defected from Lambert's side. Arnulf eventually took Rome by force in February 896, leading to his coronation and Lambert's deposition. Despite this setback, Arnulf's campaign was cut short by a stroke, forcing his return to East Francia, which allowed Lambert to regain effective control over much of Italy.

Upon Arnulf's return to Germany, Lambert and his supporters, primarily in the northeast and central parts of the peninsula, reasserted their dominance. Lambert retook Pavia and executed Maginfred I of Milan, who had sided with Arnulf. In October and November 897, Lambert and Berengar I met outside Pavia and reached an agreement to partition the kingdom. Berengar retained the territory between the Adda River and the Po, while Lambert controlled the rest. They also agreed to share Bergamo. This arrangement essentially confirmed the status quo of 889 and saw Lambert pledge to marry Gisela, Berengar's daughter, though this alliance eventually broke down. The chronicler Liutprand of Cremona later famously remarked that the Italians always suffered under two monarchs due to this partitioning.

3.4. Legal and Administrative Policies

Lambert's governance reflected a continuation of the Carolingian tradition, particularly his father's policy of Renovatio regni Francorum (renewal of the Frankish kingdom). He was notable as the last ruler in Italy to issue capitularies, which were royal ordinances or decrees. This indicates his commitment to maintaining a structured legal and administrative framework, characteristic of earlier Frankish rule.

In 898, Lambert enacted legislation aimed at curbing the exploitation of services owed by arimanni (free Frankish or Lombard warriors/landowners) to create benefices for vassals. This measure suggests an attempt to regulate feudal obligations and protect the rights of certain segments of the population, potentially contributing to social order. Furthermore, the Lex Romana Utinensis, a compilation of Roman law, was composed at his court, reflecting an effort to codify and standardize legal practices within his domain. His rule was also recognized in Benevento following the restoration of Prince Radelchis II of Benevento in 897, indicating his influence extended into southern Italy.

3.5. The Cadaver Synod

The Cadaver Synod, also known as the "Synod Horrenda," was one of the most infamous and controversial events of Lambert's reign, occurring in early 897 in Rome. Fueled by a desire for political revenge and a need to invalidate the acts of Pope Formosus, Lambert and his mother Ageltrude pressured the newly elected Pope Stephen VI, who owed his election to their influence, to put the deceased Formosus on trial.

Formosus's body was exhumed from its tomb, dressed in papal robes, and propped up on a throne in the Lateran Basilica. A deacon was appointed to speak on behalf of the corpse. The charges against Formosus were numerous, including perjury, violating canon law by transferring bishoprics, and being consecrated while still a bishop of another see. The trial was a grotesque spectacle, with Stephen VI himself acting as prosecutor. The judgment was predetermined: Formosus was found guilty. His papacy was declared null and void, and all his ordinations and acts, including the coronation of Arnulf of Carinthia as emperor, were retroactively invalidated.

Following the verdict, Formosus's papal vestments were stripped from his corpse, and the three fingers of his right hand, used for blessings, were cut off. His body was then dragged through the streets of Rome and thrown into the Tiber River. This act of desecration was a stark display of political power and a profound violation of human dignity, even in death.

The Cadaver Synod sparked outrage and controversy across Europe. While initially serving Lambert's political agenda by discrediting Arnulf's imperial claim, it ultimately backfired. Public opinion was largely horrified, and Stephen VI himself was later imprisoned and strangled. In January 898, Pope John IX rehabilitated Formosus, declaring the Cadaver Synod illegal and restoring Formosus's ordinations. Despite John IX's efforts to reverse the damage, the Cadaver Synod remains a dark stain on the history of the papacy and a testament to the brutal political maneuvering of the era.

7.1. Positive Assessment

Despite the constant conflicts, Lambert demonstrated considerable political and military acumen. He successfully navigated a period of intense fragmentation, managing to assert control over a significant portion of Italy after the withdrawal of Arnulf of Carinthia. His ability to retake Pavia and negotiate a partition agreement with Berengar I of Italy, even if temporary, highlights his pragmatic approach to governance and his skill in maintaining a precarious balance of power.

Lambert's commitment to the Renovatio regni Francorum (renewal of the Frankish kingdom) policy, inherited from his father, signifies an attempt to restore order and legitimate authority in a chaotic era. His issuance of capitularies, making him the last ruler to do so in Italy, underscores his dedication to maintaining legal and administrative traditions. Furthermore, his legislation against the exploitation of arimanni and the compilation of the Lex Romana Utinensis suggest a ruler concerned with legal reform and potentially, social justice, aiming to protect the rights of certain segments of the population and standardize legal practices. His reaffirmation of the Constitutio Romana also showed a strategic vision to reassert imperial authority over papal elections, a move that, while self-serving, aimed at a more stable relationship between secular and ecclesiastical powers.

7.2. Criticism and Controversy

Lambert's reign is most notably stained by the infamous Cadaver Synod of 897. His instigation of the posthumous trial of Pope Formosus's corpse, driven by political vengeance and a desire to invalidate Arnulf's imperial coronation, was a barbaric act that shocked contemporaries and remains a symbol of the extreme corruption and brutality of the period's power struggles. This event, which involved the desecration of a dead body and the manipulation of religious authority for political ends, stands as a stark criticism of his methods. While politically expedient in the short term, it ultimately undermined the legitimacy of the papacy and contributed to the moral decay of the Church.

His constant conflicts with rivals like Arnulf and Berengar, while necessary for survival, also contributed to the ongoing instability and fragmentation of Italy. The chronicler Liutprand of Cremona's remark that the Italians "always suffered under two monarchs" (referring to Lambert and Berengar) highlights the burden placed upon the populace by these incessant power struggles. His political methods, including the execution of opponents like Maginfred I, reveal a stern and ruthless approach to consolidating power.

7.3. Impact on Later Generations

Lambert's sudden death without a direct male heir had a profound and immediate impact on the political landscape of Italy. The regnum Italicum (Kingdom of Italy) and the imperium Romanum (Roman Empire) were thrown into renewed chaos, contested by multiple claimants, leading to a prolonged period of instability known as the "Dark Age of the Papacy" or the "Saeculum Obscurum".

His brother, Guy IV of Spoleto, succeeded him as Duke of Spoleto, but even this regional power base soon faced challenges, eventually falling under the control of other powerful families. The fragmentation of authority in Italy intensified after Lambert's demise, with various local lords and claimants vying for power, preventing the emergence of a strong, unified central authority for decades. The events of his reign, particularly the Cadaver Synod, also had a lasting impact on the perception of papal authority and the relationship between secular rulers and the Church, contributing to a period of moral decline within the papacy. In essence, Lambert's rule, while marked by attempts to restore order, ultimately ended in a return to the very chaos he sought to overcome, leaving a legacy of contested power and political instability.