Kōji Wakamatsu

2.1. Birth and Upbringing

Wakamatsu was born on April 1, 1936, in Wakuya, Miyagi Prefecture, Japan. He came from a poor family of rice farmers. His father was a horse dealer and veterinarian who struggled with alcoholism, and Wakamatsu developed a rebellious attitude against his father from a young age.

2.2. Early Experiences and Formation

Wakamatsu left agricultural high school during his second year and ran away from home to Tokyo. There, he took on various menial jobs, including working as a craftsman apprentice, a newspaper delivery person, and a construction worker. He also became involved with the yakuza, serving as an underling for Araki Kyō, a high-ranking member of the Yasuma-gumi clan in Shinjuku, Tokyo.

In 1957, Wakamatsu was arrested following a conflict between rival street gangs. He was detained in a detention center for six months and ultimately received a suspended sentence. This experience profoundly impacted him; he later famously declared that he became a film director "to kill policemen," a sentiment he claimed was reflected in his debut film, *Sweet Trap*. After his criminal experiences, he briefly and unsuccessfully attempted to enter the television industry before beginning his film career. He worked as an assistant director for television films, with actor Kōichi Ōse stating that Wakamatsu was a sound effects assistant for the TV series *Gekko Kamen*. Filmmaker Jun'ichi Inoue, who was Wakamatsu's apprentice, also recalled that Wakamatsu started as an assistant director after working in traffic control on film sets while associated with the Yasuma-gumi in Shinjuku.

3.1. Entry into the Film Industry

Wakamatsu began his film career with Nikkatsu studio in 1963. Between 1963 and 1965, he directed 20 exploitation films for the studio, often drawing inspiration from sensational topics of the day. His interest in the pink film genre was sparked by the commercial success of Tetsuji Takechi's 1964 film, *Daydream*.

In 1963, Wakamatsu made his directorial debut with the pink film *Sweet Trap*. He personally financed the production with 1.50 M JPY. Despite its low budget, the film achieved unusual commercial success for a pink film due to its compelling and powerful visuals. Wakamatsu was quickly dubbed the "Akira Kurosawa of pink film" and went on to produce numerous hit films. His early filmmaking was driven by a sense of "anger" and an anti-establishment perspective, which resonated strongly with the youth of the era.

A pivotal moment came in 1965 when his film, *Secrets Behind the Wall* (also known as *Skeleton in the Closet*), was controversially submitted to the 15th Berlin International Film Festival. This submission by Nikkatsu occurred before the film had been reviewed and approved by Eirin, Japan's film-rating board, causing significant embarrassment for the Japanese government, as pink films were not considered suitable for international export or critical attention. Despite the domestic controversy, the film received an enthusiastic reception at the festival. However, fearing governmental repercussions, Nikkatsu opted for a low-profile domestic release. Disappointed by this decision, Wakamatsu left the studio to establish his own independent production company.

3.2. Pink Film and Independent Cinema

In 1965, Wakamatsu founded Wakamatsu Production, which quickly became a hub for talented filmmakers such as Masao Adachi and Atsushi Yamatoya. His independent films of the late 1960s were characterized by extremely low budgets, often costing less than 1.00 M JPY (approximately 5.00 K USD). To achieve this, Wakamatsu employed extreme cost-cutting measures, including extensive location shooting, reliance on single-takes, and the use of natural lighting. Many of his early works were shot in black and white with occasional bursts of color used for dramatic effect.

These films were artistically distinctive, blending themes of sex and extreme violence with potent political messages. Some critics suggested that Wakamatsu intentionally provoked the government through his films, aiming to generate free publicity from the resulting censorship controversies. While his works garnered significant support from student activists, Wakamatsu himself stated that he did not make films to support student movements, but rather to create films that he found personally compelling. He later noted that when making his 2008 film *United Red Army*, former student activists surprisingly showed no interest in purchasing advance tickets.

In 1986, Wakamatsu co-produced the film *Matsui Kazuyo no Shogeki* with Toei, investing 60.00 M JPY. However, the film encountered legal issues under Japan's decency laws, leading to Toei's president, Shigeru Okada, being summoned by the police. Okada promised that the film would not be screened in regular theaters. Consequently, *Matsui Kazuyo no Shogeki* was classified as an adult film and received a limited release in pink film theaters, resulting in a substantial financial loss. To cover the debt, Wakamatsu had to sell his office in the Harajuku Central Apartment building. This financial setback meant he could no longer self-fund his films by taking on personal debt.

3.3. Key Directed Works

Wakamatsu's directorial career is marked by a series of influential and often controversial films that pushed boundaries and explored complex social and political themes.

• The Embryo Hunts in Secret (1966): This was Wakamatsu's first self-produced film. It tells the disturbing story of a man who kidnaps, tortures, and sexually abuses a woman until she eventually escapes and fatally stabs him. The film effectively uses cinematic techniques such as freeze-frames, flashbacks, and a hand-held camera, along with limited locations (two rooms and a hallway), to create a highly unsettling and claustrophobic atmosphere.
• Vagabond of Sex (1967): This film served as a parody of Shōhei Imamura's 1967 work, *A Man Vanishes*. In Wakamatsu's version, a man abandons his family in Tokyo to embark on various sexual escapades. Upon his return, he discovers that his wife is starring in Imamura's documentary about her search for her missing husband.
• Violated Angels (1967): This film was based on the real-life murder of eight nursing students in the United States by Richard Speck.
• Dark Story of a Japanese Rapist (1969): This work was inspired by a serial rapist case that occurred in Japan after World War II.
• Go, Go, Second Time Virgin (1969): The film is loosely based on the notorious Tate-LaBianca murders committed by the Manson Family in the same year.
• Sex Jack (1970): With this film, Wakamatsu aimed "to show how the revolutionary movements are always infiltrated by the moles working for the government."
• Ecstasy of the Angels (1972): A significant work within the pink film genre.
• Sacred Mother Kannon (1977): This film is highly regarded by critics and has been cited as a "textbook example" for its masterful use of metaphor and symbolism in contemporary cinema.
• United Red Army (2008): This lengthy and intense film is based on the Asama-Sansō incident, a significant event involving the United Red Army in Japan. It includes an extensive documentary segment that delves into the political backdrop leading to the tragedy and the self-destruction of the Japanese radical left. The film received numerous accolades, including the Best Asian Film Award (NETPAC Award) and the International Confederation of Art Cinemas (CICAE) Award at the 58th Berlin International Film Festival. It also won the Director's Award at the 63rd Mainichi Film Awards and Best Picture at the 18th Japan Film Critics Awards.
• Caterpillar (2010): Starring Shinobu Terajima, this film was produced with a remarkably short filming period of 12 days and a crew of only 11 people. It competed for the Golden Bear at the 60th Berlin International Film Festival, where Terajima won the Silver Bear for Best Actress. The film was praised for drawing audiences into the "reality of war as mere slaughter" and the "sex that is the root of life," reflecting Wakamatsu's strong anti-war sentiments. It also received the Special Award at the 2nd TAMA Film Award and the SARVH Award for Best Producer from the Shindo Kaneto Award.
• 11:25 The Day He Chose His Own Fate (2012): This film explores the final days of acclaimed novelist and political activist Yukio Mishima, focusing on the sequence of events that culminated in the Ichigaya incident on November 25, 1970. Japanese actor Arata portrayed Mishima. The film competed in the Un Certain Regard section at the 2012 Cannes Film Festival.
• Petrel Hotel Blue (2012)
• The Millennial Rapture (2012): Based on a novel by Kenji Nakagami and starring Shinobu Terajima, this film was completed shortly before Wakamatsu's death and was scheduled for release in spring 2013.

3.4. Production and Other Activities

Beyond his prolific directing career, Kōji Wakamatsu was also a significant figure as a producer, actively supporting other filmmakers and engaging in various media projects. He was particularly known for providing young, emerging filmmakers with their initial opportunities in the industry, including talents such as Banmei Takahashi, Genji Nakamura, and Kan Mukai.

As a producer, his credits include:

• Dry Virgin* (1965, directed by Kaoru Umezawa)
• Abortion* (1966, directed by Masao Adachi)
• Dutch Wife of the Wilderness* (1967, directed by Atsushi Yamatoya)
• Contraception Revolution* (1967, directed by Masao Adachi)
• Schoolgirl Guerrilla* (1969, directed by Masao Adachi)
• Sex Play* (1969, directed by Masao Adachi)
• New Jack and Betty* (1970, directed by Isao Okishima)
• Night Embraces Cheeks* (1973, directed by Seiichi Hayashi)
• In the Realm of the Senses* (1976, directed by Nagisa Ōshima)
• Red Sex: Assault and Battery* (1977, directed by Banmei Takahashi)
• Japanese Torture* (1978, directed by Banmei Takahashi)
• Night of Martial Law* (1980, directed by Kōsaku Yamashita)
• Woman in a Red Hat* (1982, directed by Tatsumi Kumashiro)
• Key* (1983, directed by Takayoshi Kimata, also served as director)
• Binbari High School* (1990, directed by Norifumi Suzuki)

Wakamatsu also ventured into television dramas, directing works such as *Gokudo Ochikobore Katagi ni Naritai!* (1993) and *Gokudo Ochikobore II Kakeochi Shimashita!?* (1994) for TBS. He directed episodes for the "Koi Suru Nichiyōbi" series, including "Wedding Bell" (2003) and "Futon" (2005), and "Rōgishō" (2005) for BS-TBS. Additionally, he directed episodes for "Tokyo Girl," such as "Iede no Susume." (2008) starring Anri Okamoto, "I no Naka no Marika" (2008) starring Marika Fukunaga, and "Kizuna" (2008) starring Azusa Okamoto. His television work also included an episode of *Keitai Deka Zenigata Inochi* titled "Ren'ai Dorobō Marin Futatabi Arawaru! ~Nazo no Kaitō Yokoku Jiken~" (2009).

In the realm of music, Wakamatsu uniquely directed music videos for the band Soul Flower Union. In 1998, he filmed their songs "Each Little Thing" and "Kaze no Ichi" in Ireland.

Wakamatsu also managed the Cinema Scala, a mini theater in Nagoya, and occasionally appeared as an actor. His acting roles include playing a self-proclaimed son of Babe Ruth in *Youth ☆ Metal Bat* (2006), directed by Kazuyoshi Kumakiri, and the boss of the Togashi-gumi in the V-cinema film *Mugen Jigoku Kyōaku Kin'yū-dō* (2003).

3.5. International Recognition and Festivals

Kōji Wakamatsu's films garnered significant international recognition throughout his career, highlighting their global impact and critical appreciation. His works are highly regarded overseas, with musician Jim O'Rourke, formerly of Sonic Youth, even learning Japanese specifically to compose film scores for Wakamatsu.

Key international festival appearances and awards include:

• 15th Berlin International Film Festival (1965): His film *Secrets Behind the Wall* was an official selection, despite domestic controversy.
• 20th Tokyo International Film Festival (2007): *United Red Army* received the "Japan Film - A Certain Perspective" Award.
• 58th Berlin International Film Festival (2008): *United Red Army* won both the Best Asian Film Award (NETPAC Award) and the International Confederation of Art Cinemas (CICAE) Award.
• 60th Berlin International Film Festival (2010): *Caterpillar* was nominated for the prestigious Golden Bear award. Its lead actress, Shinobu Terajima, won the Silver Bear for Best Actress at the festival.
• 2012 Cannes Film Festival: *11:25 The Day He Chose His Own Fate* competed in the Un Certain Regard section.
• 17th Busan International Film Festival (2012): Wakamatsu was honored with the 'Asian Filmmaker of the Year' award and conducted a master class during the festival.

7.1. Critical Reception

Throughout his career, Wakamatsu received significant critical acclaim and recognition. He is widely regarded as "the most important director to emerge in the pink film genre" and was recognized as one of "Japan's leading directors of the 1960s." His films, despite their often extremely low budgets, were consistently praised for their artistic merit and their bold, uncompromising vision.

His 1965 film, *Secrets Behind the Wall*, caused a sensation by being officially selected for the Berlin International Film Festival, which brought him widespread recognition beyond the pink film industry. *Sacred Mother Kannon* (1977) was particularly esteemed, cited as a "textbook example" for its sophisticated use of metaphor and symbolism. Later in his career, films like *United Red Army* (2008) and *Caterpillar* (2010) garnered numerous awards and international accolades, further solidifying his standing as a globally respected filmmaker. His works are highly regarded overseas, attracting attention from international artists like Jim O'Rourke, who learned Japanese to compose for Wakamatsu's films.

7.2. Impact on Cinema and Society

Wakamatsu's lasting influence extends across the pink film genre, the Japanese New Wave movement, and independent cinema worldwide. He played a crucial role in shaping the aesthetic and thematic directions of pink films, elevating them beyond mere exploitation to a form of social commentary. His willingness to tackle taboo subjects and his distinctive, raw style inspired a generation of filmmakers.

Beyond his own directorial output, Wakamatsu significantly contributed to the industry by actively supporting and nurturing young talent, providing many aspiring filmmakers with their first opportunities. His films, characterized by their challenging and provocative nature, consistently pushed boundaries and forced audiences to confront uncomfortable truths about society, politics, and human nature. His anti-establishment views and the "anger" that fueled his filmmaking resonated deeply with audiences, particularly the youth, making his cinematic works a powerful force in broader cultural and social discourse. His legacy is one of unwavering artistic integrity and a relentless pursuit of cinematic expression that dared to challenge the status quo.

8.1. Directed Films

8.2. Produced Films

8.3. Television Dramas

• Gokudo Ochikobore Katagi ni Naritai! (極道落ちこぼれ カタギになりたい!_{Gokudō Ochikobore Katagi ni Naritai!}^Japanese, TBS, 1993)
• Gokudo Ochikobore II Kakeochi Shimashita!? (極道落ちこぼれII 駆けおちしました!?_{Gokudō Ochikobore II Kakeochi Shimashita!?}^Japanese, TBS, 1994)
• Koi Suru Nichiyōbi (恋する日曜日_{Koi Suru Nichiyōbi}^Japanese)
  • "Wedding Bell" (ウェディングベル 前後編_{Wedingu Beru Zen-gohen}^Japanese, BS-i, 2003)
  • "Futon" (蒲団 前後編_{Futon Zen-gohen}^Japanese, BS-i, 2005)
  • "Rōgishō" (老妓抄_Rōgishō^Japanese, BS-i, 2005)
• Tokyo Girl (東京少女_{Tōkyō Shōjo}^Japanese)
  • "Iede no Susume." (家出のススメ。_{Iede no Susume.}^Japanese, BS-i, 2008) - starring Anri Okamoto
  • "I no Naka no Marika" (井の中のマリカ_{I no Naka no Marika}^Japanese, BS-i, 2008) - starring Marika Fukunaga
  • "Kizuna" (絆 前後編_{Kizuna Zen-gohen}^Japanese, BS-i, 2008) - starring Azusa Okamoto
• Keitai Deka Zenigata Inochi (ケータイ刑事 銭形命_{Keitai Deka Zenigata Inochi}^Japanese)
  • "Ren'ai Dorobō Marin Futatabi Arawaru! ~Nazo no Kaitō Yokoku Jiken~" (恋愛泥棒マリン再び現る!~謎の怪盗予告事件~_{Ren'ai Dorobō Marin Futatabi Arawaru! ~Nazo no Kaitō Yokoku Jiken~}^Japanese, BS-TBS, 2009)

8.4. Music Videos

• Soul Flower Union
  • "Each Little Thing" (1998)
  • "Kaze no Ichi" (風の市_{Kaze no Ichi}^Japanese, 1998)

8.5. Acting Roles

• Film
  • Youth ☆ Metal Bat (青春☆金属バット_{Seishun Kinzoku Batto}^Japanese, 2006) - as the self-proclaimed son of Babe Ruth
• V-Cinema
  • Mugen Jigoku Kyōaku Kin'yū-dō (無間地獄 凶悪金融道_{Mugen Jigoku Kyōaku Kin'yū-dō}^Japanese, 2003) - as the Togashi-gumi boss