Kōda Rohan

2.1. Birth and Family Background

Kōda Rohan was born Tetsushiro Shigeyuki on July 23, 1867 (lunar calendar, August 22, 1867, solar calendar), as the fourth son of Kōda Risaburō (later Shigenobu) and Yū. His birthplace was Sanmaibashi-chō, Shita-ya, Edo (present-day Taitō Ward, Tokyo). The Kōda family had a historical connection to the samurai class, with his father serving as an `Omotegoboshu` 表御坊主衆^Japanese, a position responsible for mediating between daimyō and the shogunate in Edo Castle during the Edo period. Rohan was reportedly a sickly child, facing several life-threatening illnesses, including a severe one just 27 days after his birth. The family temporarily relocated to Asakusa Suwa-chō due to the Ueno War before settling in Kanda after returning to Shita-ya.

2.2. Childhood and Education

Rohan's early education began at private academies. He first studied calligraphy under Seki Chiyo, the elder sister of calligrapher Seki Settsu, at a `juku` 塾^Japanese on Shita-ya Izumibashi Street. He then learned `sodoku` 素読^Japanese (reading aloud without necessarily understanding the meaning) at another `juku` run by a Mr. Aida in Okachi-chō. In 1875, at Chiyo's recommendation, he enrolled in the Tokyo Normal School Attached Elementary School (now University of Tsukuba Attached Elementary School). It was during this period that he developed a deep fondness for `kusazōshi` 草双紙^Japanese (illustrated popular fiction) and `dokuhon` 読本^Japanese (reading books).

After graduating in 1878, Rohan entered the regular course of Tokyo Prefectural First Middle School (now Tokyo Metropolitan Hibiya High School), where his classmates included future literary giant Ozaki Kōyō, linguist Ueda Mannen, and philosopher Kano Kōkichi. However, due to his family's financial difficulties, he withdrew from the school. At the age of 14 years (by traditional Japanese reckoning), he transferred to Tokyo English School (now Aoyama Gakuin University), but he also left this institution before graduating. During this time, he frequently visited the Tokyo Prefectural Library, where he befriended Awashima Kangetsu. Influenced by his elder brother, Naritsune, Rohan developed an interest in `haikai` 俳諧^Japanese (a genre of Japanese linked verse). He further honed his classical Chinese studies and Chinese poetry at Kikuchi Shōken's Geigijuku, where he studied alongside Chizuka Reisui. Although his family, influenced by his father's conversion, largely adopted Christianity, Rohan notably refused to convert, remaining the only non-Christian among his immediate family members.

2.3. Transition to Literature

At the age of 16 years (by traditional Japanese reckoning), Kōda Rohan entered the Ministry of Communications' official Telegraph Technical School as a scholarship student. Upon graduation, he was appointed as a telegraph engineer and assigned to Yoichi, Hokkaido. While stationed there, he reportedly gained popularity among the local `geisha`. More significantly, it was in Hokkaido that he encountered Tsubouchi Shōyō's influential works, "Shōsetsu Shinzui" (The Essence of the Novel) and "Tōsei Shosei Katagi" (The Character of Modern Students). These encounters ignited a fervent passion for literature within him.

In 1887, driven by his literary aspirations, Rohan abandoned his official post and returned to Tokyo. This journey from Hokkaido to Tokyo later served as the inspiration for his work "Tokkan Kiko" 突貫紀行^Japanese (A Rushing Journey). During this travels, he composed a haiku: `Sato tōshi iza tsuyu to nen kusamakura` 里遠し いざ露と寝ん 草枕^Japanese (Far from home, let's sleep with the dew on a grassy pillow). From the word `tsuyu` (dew), he adopted his famous pen name, "Rohan" 露伴^Japanese.

After being dismissed from his government position, Rohan began working at his father's paper store, Ai-ai-do. During this period, he avidly read the works of Ihara Saikaku, even copying manuscripts of "Kōshoku Gonin Onna" (Five Women Who Loved Love). In 1889, Rohan drafted "Tsuyu Dandan" 露団々^Japanese (Dewdrops), which was published in the magazine `Miyako no Hana` 都の花^Japanese through the mediation of Awashima Kangetsu. This work received high praise from Yamada Bimyo, a prominent literary critic. He subsequently published "Fūryūbutsu" 風流仏^Japanese (The Elegant Buddha) in 1889 and "The Five-Storied Pagoda" 五重塔^Japanese in 1892, the latter modeled after Tennoji Temple in Yanaka, Shita-ya Ward. These early successes firmly established his position as a rising author in the Japanese literary world.

3.1. Key Novels and Short Stories

Kōda Rohan's early fictional works quickly garnered critical acclaim, defining his unique voice in the Meiji literary landscape. His debut, "Tsuyu Dandan" 露団々^Japanese (Dewdrops), published in 1889, immediately drew attention. This was followed by "Fūryūbutsu" 風流仏^Japanese (The Elegant Buddha), also known as "The Icon of Liberty" or "The Buddha of Art," in the same year, a work that further solidified his reputation. Other notable short stories from this period include "Engei En" 縁外縁^Japanese (Love Bodhisattva, 1890), which was later retitled "Tai Dokuro" 対髑髏^Japanese (Encounter with a Skull) and included in the short story collection `Hazue-shū` 葉末集^Japanese. He also published "A Sealed Letter" in 1890.

His most celebrated novel, "The Five-Storied Pagoda" 五重塔^Japanese, published in 1892, is a masterpiece known for its detailed depiction of craftsmanship and the pursuit of an ideal. Other significant novels include "Isanatori" いさなとり^Japanese (The Whaler, 1891-1892), "Fūryū Mijinzō" 風流微塵蔵^Japanese (The Minute Storehouse of Life, 1893-1895), which remained unfinished, and "Hige Otoko" ひげ男^Japanese (The Bearded Samurai, 1896). He also wrote "Shin Hagoromo Monogatari" 新羽衣物語^Japanese (New Hagoromo Story, 1897), which was notably published as a prize for a new tobacco product, and "Wankyu Monogatari" 椀久物語^Japanese (1899-1900). Rohan's ambitious novel "Ten Utsu Nami" 天うつ浪^Japanese (Heaven-Striking Waves), serialized from 1903 to 1905, remained incomplete.

After a period of reduced literary output, Rohan made a successful return to the literary scene with "Yūjōki" 幽情記^Japanese (A Record of Hidden Feelings), a collection of short stories from 1915-1917, and "Unmei" 運命^Japanese (Fate) in 1919. These later works frequently drew inspiration from Chinese classics and were highly acclaimed, with "Unmei" receiving particular praise from authors like Tanizaki Jun'ichirō. Kōda Rohan, along with his contemporary Ozaki Kōyō, established the "Kōro Jidai" 紅露時代^Japanese (Kōda-Ozaki Era), a golden age of Japanese literature characterized by their distinct styles - Kōyō's realism and Rohan's idealism. This period is also sometimes referred to as the "Kōro Shōō Jidai" 紅露逍鴎時代^Japanese, including Tsubouchi Shōyō and Mori Ōgai.

3.2. Historical Biographies and Essays

Following 1904, Kōda Rohan shifted his primary focus from fiction to historical biographies and classical commentaries, though he continued to produce significant essays and critical works. His historical biographies included detailed accounts of prominent figures such as "Ninomiya Sontoku Ō" 二宮尊徳翁^Japanese (1891), "Yoritomo" 頼朝^Japanese (1908), "Taira no Masakado" 平将門^Japanese, and "Gamō Ujisato" 蒲生氏郷^Japanese.

Rohan also contributed significantly to urban theory and social commentary through his essays. Notable works in this category include "Ikkoku no Shuto" 一国の首都^Japanese (The Capital of a Nation, 1899-1901), a pioneering urban theory for its time, and "Mizu no Tokyo" 水の東京^Japanese (Watery Tokyo, 1901). Other essays and critical writings include "Shiomachi Gusa" 潮待ち草^Japanese (1906), "Kagyūan Yatan" 蝸牛庵夜譚^Japanese (Night Tales from Snail Cottage, 1907), "Shōhin Jisshu" 小品十種^Japanese (Ten Short Pieces, 1908), "Futsu Bunshōron" 普通文章論^Japanese (Theory of Ordinary Prose, 1908), which offered writing advice for beginners, "Doryokuron" 努力論^Japanese (On Effort, 1912), and "Henkō mo Hozon mo" 変更も保存も^Japanese (Change and Preservation, 1921).

3.3. Classical Studies and Commentaries

Kōda Rohan's scholarly pursuits were as extensive and influential as his fictional output. He engaged deeply with Japanese classics, offering critical commentaries on works like those of Ihara Saikaku and "Nansō Satomi Hakkenden" (The Eight Dog Heroes of the Satomi Clan). He co-authored "Bashō Haiku Kenkyū" 芭蕉俳句研究^Japanese (Research on Bashō's Haiku) with six other members of the Bashō Research Society, including Numa nami Keion and Ōta Mizuho. His most monumental scholarly undertaking was the "Bashō Shichibushū Hyōshaku" 芭蕉七部集評釈^Japanese (Commentary on Bashō's Seven Anthologies), a comprehensive annotation of Matsuo Bashō's works that he began in 1920 and meticulously completed over 17 years, finishing it in 1947, the year of his death.

Rohan was also a pioneer in the study of Taoism. He published several groundbreaking papers on the subject during a period when Taoist studies were still nascent globally. His research on Taoism is highly regarded; for instance, Nanjō Takenori noted that Rohan's work, alongside that of Henri Maspero, was among the most impactful in Taoist scholarship. In 1907, Rohan published "Yūsenkutsu" 遊仙窟^Japanese, an essay arguing that the Tang dynasty `chuanqi` 傳奇^Chinese novel "Youxian Ku" 遊仙窟^Chinese had a profound influence on the ancient Japanese poetry collection "Man'yōshū". This work was a key factor in his being awarded a Doctor of Literature degree in 1911.

In 1908, Rohan was invited by his old friend Kano Kōkichi, the first dean of the Faculty of Letters at Kyoto Imperial University (now Kyoto University), to lecture on Japanese literature. This was considered a bold move by Kano, as Rohan, though famous as a novelist, was an unproven academic. During the same period, Naitō Konan was also invited to lecture on East Asian history. Rohan's lectures, which covered topics such as the development of Japanese literary style, literary theory on "Soga Monogatari" and `Wasan` 和讃^Japanese, and Chikamatsu Monzaemon's `sewa jōruri` 世話浄瑠璃^Japanese, were highly praised by students despite his somewhat unpolished speaking style. He was noted for writing in a hurried cursive script on the blackboard, which, combined with his large stature, made note-taking difficult for students. Despite his academic aptitude, Rohan resigned from the university after less than a year, returning to Tokyo during summer vacation. He jokingly attributed his departure to Kyoto's lack of fishing spots, but it is believed that the bureaucratic and rigid university environment did not suit him, and his wife Kimi's deteriorating health (she died in 1910) may also have been a factor.

3.4. Literary Style and Philosophy

Kōda Rohan's literary style is characterized by its distinctive pseudo-classical elegance, a deliberate choice that set him apart from his contemporaries who leaned towards realism or naturalism. He masterfully employed `bungotai` 文語体^Japanese (classical literary language), imbuing his prose with a rich, refined, and often archaic vocabulary and grammatical structures. This style contributed to the unique aesthetic and intellectual depth of his works.

Philosophically, Rohan was an idealist, often exploring themes of human aspiration, the pursuit of perfection, and the clash between spiritual ideals and worldly realities. His works frequently delved into profound philosophical and religious concepts, drawing heavily from his extensive knowledge of Buddhism, Taoism, and other Eastern religious traditions. This deep understanding allowed him to weave complex spiritual narratives and symbolic imagery into his fiction.

His engagement with Chinese literary heritage was also a defining characteristic. Many of his works, particularly those written after his return to literature, explicitly drew material and inspiration from Chinese classics. While his novel "Unmei" 運命^Japanese (Fate) was lauded by many, including Tanizaki Jun'ichirō, for its profound engagement with Chinese historical themes, some critics like Takashima Toshio argued that it was merely a direct transcription of Chinese historical texts. Despite such criticisms, Rohan's pioneering work in Taoist studies, as noted by scholars like Nanjō Takenori, remains a significant contribution, recognized as a classic alongside the works of figures like Henri Maspero. His unique blend of classical Japanese aesthetics, Chinese philosophical depth, and an unwavering pursuit of ideals cemented his place as a singular and influential voice in Japanese literature.

4.1. Marriages and Children

Kōda Rohan married Kimi Yamamuro 山室 幾美^Japanese at the age of 29 years (by traditional Japanese reckoning). Kimi was described as a supportive and understanding partner. Together, they had three children: a daughter named Uta 歌^Japanese, another daughter who would become the acclaimed author Aya Kōda 幸田 文^Japanese, and a son named Shigetoyo 成豊^Japanese. However, their family life was touched by tragedy. Kimi passed away in 1910 due to influenza. Two years later, in 1912, their eldest daughter Uta also died at a young age.

In 1912, Rohan remarried to Yayo Kodama 児玉 八代^Japanese, who was a Christian. Yayo played a role in Aya Kōda's education, arranging for her to attend a mission school for girls. More sorrow befell the family in 1926 when their son Shigetoyo died from tuberculosis. This tragic event later became the inspiration for Aya Kōda's semi-autobiographical novel "Her Brother" (Otōto). Yayo and Rohan eventually separated in 1933, and Yayo passed away in 1945.

4.2. Daughter Aya Kōda

Kōda Rohan's daughter, Aya Kōda 幸田 文^Japanese, became a distinguished essayist and novelist in her own right, often reflecting on her relationship with her father and their family life in her literary works. Aya began contributing essays shortly before her father's death, though he did not live to see the publication of her collection of essays about him, titled `Zappi` 雑記^Japanese (Miscellaneous Notes), which was intended for his 80th birthday commemoration. After Rohan's passing, Aya's essays about her father gained significant attention, leading her to embark on a full-time literary career. Her works provide unique insights into Rohan's character and their domestic life. Aya Kōda's legacy continued through her own daughter, Tama Aoki 青木 玉^Japanese, who also became an essayist, and Tama's daughter, Nao Aoki 青木 奈緒^Japanese, an essayist with a background in German literature.

4.3. Later Years and Death

In 1945, amidst the turmoil of World War II, Kōda Rohan evacuated to Nagano Prefecture with his daughter Aya and granddaughter Tama, staying at his second wife Yayo's separate residence. He later moved to Itō, Shizuoka Prefecture. Aya and Tama temporarily stayed at the home of Toshihiko Dobashi before renting a house in Sugano, Ichikawa City, Chiba Prefecture, in October 1945. Rohan joined them in Sugano on January 28, 1946.

During his time in Ichikawa, Rohan, then an elderly man, suffered from cataracts and was largely bedridden. Despite his failing health, he managed to complete his monumental "Bashō Shichibushū Hyōshaku" 芭蕉七部集評釈^Japanese through dictation to Toshihiko Dobashi. Kōda Rohan passed away on July 30, 1947, at the age of 79, in Sugano, Ichikawa City, Chiba Prefecture (now Sugano 4-chome), due to pneumonia complicated by angina pectoris.

His funeral was a modest affair held in their small, three-room house. Despite its simplicity, notable figures such as then-Prime Minister Katayama Tetsu and scholar Abe Yoshishige attended, and condolences were sent from both the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors. His grave is located at Ikegami Honmon-ji Temple, and his posthumous Buddhist name is Rohan Koji 露伴居士^Japanese. After his death, the old house in Terajima-chō, Sumida Ward, where Rohan had lived for many years, was demolished due to dilapidation. A park was subsequently constructed on the site, named "Rohan Park." Completed on April 24, 1963, and officially opened in early May, it is still known today as the Sumida Ward Rohan Children's Park 墨田区立露伴児童遊園^Japanese.

5.1. Hobbies and Pursuits

Kōda Rohan was known for his diverse hobbies, which included traditional Japanese games, outdoor activities, and even photography. He was a keen player of both Go and Shogi (Japanese chess). In Shogi, he studied under several grandmasters, including the 12th Meijin Ono Gohei, 13th Meijin Sekine Kinjirō, and 14th Meijin Kimura Yoshio. He received amateur first-dan rank from Ono Meijin in 1916, second-dan from Inoue Yoshio eight-dan in 1917, and fourth-dan from Sekine Meijin in 1922. His interest extended to the history of Shogi, leading him to contribute essays like "Shogi Zakkō" 将棋雑考^Japanese (Miscellaneous Thoughts on Shogi) and "Shogi Zatsuwa" 将棋雑話^Japanese (Miscellaneous Talks on Shogi) to the magazine `Taiyō` 太陽^Japanese. In 1957, on the tenth anniversary of his death, the Japan Shogi Association posthumously awarded him the rank of sixth-dan.

Rohan was also an enthusiastic angler, frequently embarking on fishing trips to various rivers. His diaries, essays, and poems contain detailed observations on fishing, including his extensive knowledge of hook shapes and methods for raising earthworms as bait. Additionally, he enjoyed cooking and photography, further showcasing his wide range of interests.

5.2. Futurist Visions

Kōda Rohan also possessed a lesser-known facet as a futurist. In 1911, he published "Kokkei Otesei Miraiki" 滑稽御手製未来記^Japanese (Humorous Self-Made Future Diary), a speculative work that remarkably anticipated several technological and societal advancements. In this work, he envisioned concepts such as wireless power transmission, moving sidewalks, monorails, and electric cars, demonstrating a forward-thinking imagination that extended beyond the literary and classical realms.

6.1. Awards and Honors

Kōda Rohan received numerous accolades for his literary and scholarly achievements. On April 28, 1937, he was among the very first individuals to be awarded the prestigious Order of Culture 文化勲章^Japanese when it was established. Upon receiving the award, he humbly commented that he had " hardly held a pen for the past few years." In the same year, he was also inducted as a member of the Imperial Academy of Arts 帝国芸術院^Japanese.

6.2. Literary Standing and Critical Evaluation

Kōda Rohan holds a pivotal position in Japanese literary history, particularly within the Meiji era. He is often mentioned in the same breath as Natsume Sōseki and Mori Ōgai, forming a triumvirate of literary giants who shaped modern Japanese literature. His partnership with Ozaki Kōyō defined the "Kōro Jidai" 紅露時代^Japanese, a period characterized by their contrasting yet complementary styles - Kōyō's realism and Rohan's idealism. This era is sometimes expanded to the "Kōro Shōō Jidai" 紅露逍鴎時代^Japanese to include Tsubouchi Shōyō and Mori Ōgai.

Rohan was the leading exponent of pseudo-classicism, a literary movement that sought to revive and adapt classical Japanese and Chinese literary styles. His works were praised for their profound philosophical depth, intricate narratives, and masterful command of `bungotai` 文語体^Japanese (classical literary language). While his novel "Unmei" 運命^Japanese received high praise from contemporaries like Tanizaki Jun'ichirō, some critics, such as Takashima Toshio, offered a more critical assessment, arguing that it relied heavily on direct transcription from Chinese historical texts. Despite varied critical opinions on specific works, his overall standing as a scholar and a master of literary craft remains undisputed.

6.3. Enduring Influence

The influence of Kōda Rohan's writings, scholarship, and unique perspective continues to resonate with subsequent generations of Japanese writers and intellectuals. His commitment to idealism, his deep engagement with classical traditions, and his pioneering work in fields like Taoist studies have left a lasting intellectual legacy. His former residence, known as `Kagyūan` 蝸牛庵^Japanese (Snail Cottage), where he lived for about 10 years from 1897 in Mukōjima, Tokyo (then Terajima Village, Minamikatsushika District, Tokyo Prefecture), was later relocated and preserved at the Meiji Mura museum. This house is now designated as a Registered Tangible Cultural Property of Japan, symbolizing his enduring cultural significance. His complete works have been compiled into multiple editions, most notably the "Rohan Zenshū" 露伴全集^Japanese (Complete Works of Rohan) by Iwanami Shoten, which includes a 44-volume second edition published from 1978 to 1980.

7.1. Portrayals in Media

Kōda Rohan has been depicted in numerous films, television dramas, theatrical productions, and animated works. His daughter, Aya Kōda's autobiographical novel "Her Brother" (Otōto), which draws heavily from their family life, has been adapted multiple times. In the 1960 Kon Ichikawa film adaptation of "Her Brother," the character of "Father," based on Kōda Rohan, was played by Masayuki Mori. Other film adaptations of "Otōto" include the 1976 version, where he was played by Isao Kimura, and television drama adaptations in 1958 (played by Yoshi Katō), 1981 (played by Mizuho Suzuki), and 1990 (played by Shizuo Nakajō).

Rohan also appears as a protagonist in the 1985 award-winning historical fantasy novel "Teito Monogatari" (Imperial Capital Story) by Hiroshi Aramata, which features many historical figures from the Meiji Restoration. In the first film adaptation of "Teito Monogatari" (1988), he was portrayed by veteran actor Kōji Takahashi. In the animated adaptation (1991), his voice was provided by Yūsaku Yara.

Other notable portrayals include:

• In the 1993 film "Waga Ai no Fu: Taki Rentarō Monogatari" わが愛の譜 滝廉太郎物語^Japanese (My Love's Score: The Story of Taki Rentarō), he was played by Kyōhei Shibata.
• In the 1996 television drama "Koishikawa no Ie" 小石川の家^Japanese (The House in Koishikawa), he was played by Hisaya Morishige.
• In the 2001 television drama "Yamada Fūtarō Karakuri Jikenchō" 山田風太郎からくり事件帖^Japanese (Yamada Fūtarō's Clockwork Case Files), he was played by Yūta Minowa.
• In the 2002 television drama "Kōda-ke no Hitobito" 幸田家の人びと^Japanese (The Kōda Family), he was played by Nakamura Baijaku II.
• In theatrical productions of "Arifuku Shijin" 有福詩人^Japanese (The Poet with Fortune), he was played by Mikijirō Hira in 1964 and Seiya Nakano in 1989.
• In the 1998 opera "Opera Taki Rentarō," he was played by Yoshifusa Fujita.