1. Overview
John of Falkenberg, also known as Johannes Falkenberg (John von FalkenbergGerman), was a German Dominican theologian and writer of the Late Middle Ages. While his exact birth date is unknown, he was born in Falkenberg, Pomerania, and died around 1418, possibly in Italy or his native town, though the circumstances of his death remain uncertain. His historical significance stems from his active involvement in the Western Schism and, more notably, his participation in the protracted disputes between the Teutonic Knights and the allied Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Falkenberg is recognized as one of the earliest thinkers to explicitly advocate for the genocide of an entire nation. This document will critically examine his life, writings, and the controversial implications of his views, particularly his justification for mass extermination, from a human rights perspective.
2. Life
John of Falkenberg's life saw him rise through the ranks of the Dominican Order, becoming a prominent theologian and a controversial figure deeply entangled in the political and religious conflicts of his time.
2.1. Early Life and Education
Little is definitively known about John of Falkenberg's early life. He was born in Falkenberg, a town in Pomerania. He joined the Order of St. Dominic and completed his novitiate in the convent located in Kammin. His later achievement of becoming a Master of Sacred Theology indicates that he underwent extensive education within his order, likely spending a number of years teaching both philosophy and theology.
2.2. Theological Career
As a Master of Sacred Theology, John of Falkenberg played an active role as a teacher and scholar within the Dominican Order. His theological pursuits and teachings laid the groundwork for his later involvement in complex ecclesiastical and political debates, where his controversial interpretations of religious doctrine would become central to his notoriety.
3. Involvement in Conflicts and Disputes
John of Falkenberg was not merely an academic theologian; he was an engaged participant in the major conflicts and disputes of his era, aligning himself strongly with particular factions.
3.1. Role in the Western Schism
During the tumultuous period of the Western Schism, John of Falkenberg staunchly supported Pope Gregory XII. This put him at odds with many of his Dominican brethren, including the general of his order, Bernard de Datis, who were firm adherents of the antipopes Alexander V and John XXIII. Falkenberg's opposition was so pronounced that he publicly refused to acknowledge Bernard de Datis as his superior at the Council of Constance.
3.2. Support for the Teutonic Knights
Falkenberg became deeply involved in the long-standing conflict between the Teutonic Knights of Prussia and the allied forces of the Kingdom of Poland, led by King Jogaila, and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, led by Duke Vytautas. He vigorously supported the Teutonic Knights, who had been waging a prolonged crusade for a century against the then-pagan Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Both sides ultimately submitted their dispute for mediation to the Council of Constance, where Falkenberg's controversial views would come to light.
4. Major Writings and Ideology
John of Falkenberg's major written works are crucial for understanding his radical ideological arguments, which extended to justifying violence and extermination against his opponents.
4.1. Liber de doctrina
In 1416, Falkenberg published Liber de doctrina, a work explicitly opposing the Polish scholar Paulus Vladimiri. In this book, Falkenberg argued that the King of Poland and his supporters were idolaters and unbelievers, and that any opposition against them was noble and praiseworthy. He further justified the concept of tyrannicide, drawing upon the arguments previously advocated by the Franciscan theologian Jean Petit. Falkenberg concluded that it was entirely lawful to kill the King of Poland and his associates.
Crucially, in Liber de doctrina, Falkenberg asserted that "the Emperor has the right to slay even peaceful infidels simply because they are pagans (...). The Poles deserve death for defending infidels, and should be exterminated even more than the infidels; they should be deprived of their sovereignty and reduced to slavery." This formulation, as noted by scholars like Stanislaus F. Belch in his work Paulus Vladimiri and his Doctrine concerning International Law and Politics, marks Falkenberg as one of the first writers to explicitly formulate a justification for genocide.
4.2. Satira and Tres tractatuli
Falkenberg's other writings further solidified his extreme stance. In 1412, he published Satira, a work that continued to attack the Poles and King Jogaila. Despite King Jogaila and Lithuania having converted to Christianity by this time, Falkenberg pejoratively called King Jogaila a "mad dog," deeming him unworthy of kingship.
In a later work, Tres tractatuli, published in 1416, Falkenberg attempted to refute the arguments of prominent theologians like Jean Gerson, Pierre d'Ailly, and other scholars from the University of Paris who had condemned the works of Jean Petit. In this particular treatise, Falkenberg additionally denied bishops the right to declare his book, or any part of it, heretical. He controversially claimed that in matters of faith, only the Pope and general councils possessed infallibility.
5. Condemnation and Controversy
John of Falkenberg's radical views and writings did not go unchallenged; they provoked significant condemnation and remain a subject of historical criticism, particularly regarding his advocacy for genocide.
5.1. Verdicts by Church Councils and Orders
Following his inflammatory writings, John of Falkenberg was imprisoned by order of Nicolaus, Archbishop of Gniezno. The Poles vehemently demanded that Falkenberg be convicted of heresy for his pronouncements, though this demand ultimately proved unsuccessful. His works were officially condemned by the Council of Constance not as heretical, but as scandalously libelous.
A similar verdict was issued by the Dominican Order itself, which convened in Strasbourg from May to June 1417. The order also condemned Falkenberg and sentenced him to life imprisonment. Upon his return to Rome, Pope Martin V took Falkenberg into his custody, keeping him in close confinement for several years. Whether Falkenberg eventually regained his liberty or died while still imprisoned remains uncertain.
5.2. Advocacy of Genocide and Historical Criticism
John of Falkenberg's explicit formulation of justification for the mass extermination and enslavement of a people, particularly articulated in Liber de doctrina, represents a profoundly disturbing chapter in theological and political thought. His arguments, which sought to legitimize violence against "unbelievers" and those who defended them, fundamentally disregard principles of human dignity and are widely condemned by modern international law concerning human rights and the prevention of mass atrocities. Historically, these views are regarded as an early and chilling example of ideological support for what would later be understood as genocide, marking him as a figure whose intellectual contributions are inextricably linked with a legacy of advocating extreme and inhumane policies.
6. Death
John of Falkenberg died around 1418. The precise location and circumstances of his death are not definitively known. Accounts suggest he may have died in Italy while under papal confinement, or possibly in his native town, though historical records do not provide a conclusive answer.
7. Historical Evaluation
John of Falkenberg's historical legacy is primarily defined by his controversial and extreme theological and political views, particularly his explicit advocacy for the extermination and enslavement of the Polish people and "infidels." While he was a recognized Master of Sacred Theology and played a role in the significant political and religious disputes of his era, such as the Western Schism and the conflicts involving the Teutonic Knights, it is his intellectual justification for mass violence that sets him apart. His writings, especially Liber de doctrina, represent an alarming precedent in the history of thought, formulating what scholars identify as one of the earliest justifications for genocide. Despite official condemnations of his works as libelous by church councils and his own order, the theological rationale he constructed for systematic violence against a defined group has left a lasting, negative mark on the understanding of religious and political extremism. His life and works serve as a stark reminder of how theological discourse can be distorted to rationalize severe violations of human dignity and rights, placing him as a critically viewed figure in the annals of medieval history.