Jean de La Fontaine

2.1. Early years and education

Jean de La Fontaine was born on July 8, 1621, in Château-Thierry, Champagne, France. His father, Charles de La Fontaine, held the position of maître des eaux et forêts (a type of deputy-ranger) for the Duchy of Château-Thierry, and his mother was Françoise Pidoux. Both sides of his family belonged to the affluent provincial middle class. As the eldest child, Jean received his early education at the collège (grammar school) in Château-Thierry, where he studied Latin.
In May 1641, he briefly entered the Oratory, followed by the seminary of Saint-Magloire in October of the same year, but soon realized he had mistaken his vocation and left in 1642. He then pursued legal studies, reportedly being admitted as an avocat (lawyer) in the Paris Parliament in 1649. Growing up surrounded by nature, he developed a deep affection for the natural world and freedom, which later profoundly influenced his writings. He also frequently participated in a society of young poets, where he met figures like Pellisson, François Charpentier, and Gédéon Tallemant des Réaux.

2.2. Family life

In 1647, La Fontaine's father resigned his rangership in his favor and arranged his marriage to Marie Héricart, a fourteen-year-old girl who brought a dowry of 20.00 K FRF and future prospects. While Marie was described as beautiful and intelligent, their marriage was not harmonious. Although there were vague rumors about her conduct, these were largely unsubstantiated gossip. She was noted for being a negligent housewife and an avid reader of novels. La Fontaine himself was frequently absent from home and not strictly faithful, and his poor business acumen led to financial difficulties, necessitating an amicable financial separation of property (separation de biens) in 1658. Over time, they ceased living together, with La Fontaine residing primarily in Paris and his wife remaining in Château-Thierry, though he often visited. Their only son, Charles, was born in 1653 and was entirely raised and cared for by his mother. Marie Héricart survived La Fontaine by nearly fifteen years.

2.3. Literary career in Paris

La Fontaine began frequenting Paris even in the early years of his marriage, becoming a regular resident around 1656. His official duties as a ranger were occasional, allowing for this non-residence. His literary career commenced after he turned thirty, reportedly inspired by the works of François de Malherbe. His first significant literary endeavor was a translation or adaptation of Terence's Eunuchus in 1654.
He soon gained the patronage of Nicolas Fouquet, the Superintendent of Finance, through his wife's relative, Jacques Jannart. In 1659, La Fontaine received a pension of 1.00 K FRF from Fouquet, in exchange for a quarterly poem. He also started Le Songe de Vaux, a mix of prose and poetry, inspired by Fouquet's renowned country estate, Vaux-le-Vicomte. After Fouquet's arrest and fall from grace, La Fontaine, like many of Fouquet's literary protégés, demonstrated loyalty by writing the elegy Pleurez, Nymphes de Vaux.
Around this time, La Fontaine faced financial and legal challenges, including a 2.00 K FRF fine for improperly using the title of esquire. He found new protectors in the Duke and Duchess of Bouillon, his feudal superiors in Château-Thierry, with whom he shared a taste for Ariosto, influencing his first major work, the first book of the Contes, published in 1664. At 43, this marked his entry into significant literary production, though much of his earlier work had circulated in manuscript form.
In 1664, he was officially appointed as a gentleman to the Duchess Dowager of Orléans and resided in the Luxembourg Palace in Paris. He continued to hold his rangership, although he received a reprimand from Jean-Baptiste Colbert in 1666 regarding malpractices in Château-Thierry. The second book of his Contes appeared in 1666, followed by the first six books of the Fables in 1668, with more works of both types in 1671. In 1671, he even acted as editor for a volume of sacred poetry dedicated to the Prince of Conti, at the behest of the Port-Royalists.
His fortunes shifted in 1672 with the death of the Duchess of Orléans, leading him to likely sell his rangership to cover debts. However, he found a new benefactor in Marguerite de la Sablière, a woman of considerable intellect and character, who invited him to live in her home in 1673. He remained there for about twenty years, free from financial worries, dedicating himself to his diverse poetic and theatrical compositions. It was during this period that the famous literary quartet of the Rue du Vieux Colombier was formed, comprising La Fontaine, Racine, Boileau, and Molière. Many anecdotes, some apocryphal, circulated about these meetings, including one where a copy of Chapelain's unfortunate Pucelle served as a punishment for company offenses. La Fontaine's versions of the Cupid and Psyche story and Adonis were not printed until 1669.

2.4. Membership in the Académie française

By 1682, at over sixty years old, La Fontaine was widely regarded as one of France's foremost literary figures. His second collection of Fables, published in 1678, was highly acclaimed, with Madame de Sévigné describing it as "divine." Consequently, he sought admission to the Académie française. Despite the potentially controversial nature of his Contes and his past associations with Nicolas Fouquet and the Frondeur party, which made him suspect to Jean-Baptiste Colbert and the King, many members of the Academy were his personal friends.
He was first proposed in 1682 but was rejected in favor of the Marquis de Dangeau. The following year, after Colbert's death, La Fontaine was nominated again. Boileau was also a candidate, but La Fontaine secured sixteen votes against Boileau's seven in the first ballot. The King, whose assent was crucial, was displeased and delayed the election. However, when another vacancy arose months later, Boileau was elected. The King then enthusiastically approved Boileau's election, adding, "Vous pouvez incessamment recevoir La Fontaine, il a promis d'etre sage_{You may immediately receive La Fontaine, he has promised to be wise}^French."
His admission indirectly led to his only significant literary dispute. A quarrel took place between the Academy and one of its members, Antoine Furetière, concerning his French dictionary, which was deemed a breach of the Academy's corporate privileges. Furetière, a capable writer, bitterly attacked his perceived enemies, including La Fontaine, whose unlucky Contes made him particularly vulnerable, especially after his second collection of tales had been condemned by the police. The quarrel ended with Furetière's death. La Fontaine also had a share in the more famous Ancient-and-Modern squabble, in which Boileau and Charles Perrault were the main figures. Despite Perrault specifically singling him out for favorable comparison with Aesop and Phaedrus, La Fontaine sided with the "Ancients."

2.5. Later life and conversion

Around 1685-1687, La Fontaine became acquainted with Monsieur and Madame d'Hervart, who would become his last significant hosts and protectors. During this period, he also developed an affection for a certain Madame Ulrich, a woman of some social standing but questionable character. He frequented the libertine circles of Vendôme, Chaulieu, and the Temple. Although Marguerite de la Sablière had largely dedicated herself to good works and religious practices, La Fontaine continued to reside in her home until her death in 1693. A well-known anecdote illustrates his childlike nature: upon hearing of Madame de la Sablière's death, Hervart immediately sought out La Fontaine, finding him in great sorrow in the street. When Hervart offered him a home, La Fontaine simply replied, "J'y allais_{I was going there}^French."
In 1692, despite suffering from a severe illness, La Fontaine published a revised edition of his Contes. That same year, he underwent a significant conversion to Christianity. A young priest, M. Poucet, reportedly convinced him of the impropriety of his Contes, and as a sign of repentance, La Fontaine is said to have agreed to the destruction of a new play. He received the Viaticum, and in his final years, he continued to write poems and fables, including completing his monumental Fables. A story recounts the young Duke of Burgundy, Fénelon's eleven-year-old pupil, independently sending La Fontaine 50 FRF as a gift. Though he temporarily recovered, he was ultimately weakened by age and infirmity, requiring constant care from the Hervarts, which they provided with great kindness.

2.6. Death

Jean de La Fontaine died in Paris on April 13, 1695, at the age of seventy-three, just over two years after the death of Madame de la Sablière. His remains were later moved to Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris when it was established. His wife survived him by nearly fifteen years.

2.7. Personality and anecdotes

Jean de La Fontaine's distinctive personality has become the subject of numerous anecdotes and a literary legend. From an early age, his absent-mindedness and disinterest in practical matters were noted by contemporaries like Gédéon Tallemant des Réaux. Over time, these tales grew, solidifying his public persona. Famous anecdotes include his supposed encounter with his own son, whom he failed to recognize, remarking, "Ah, yes, I thought I had seen him somewhere!^English" Other stories depict his social eccentricities, such as his insistence on a duel with a supposed admirer of his wife, only to then cordially invite the same person to visit, or his appearing in company with his stockings inside out. Conversely, there are accounts of his awkwardness, silence, or even rudeness in social settings.
It is worth noting that Jean de La Bruyère's unfavorable description of La Fontaine might be influenced by La Fontaine's close friendship with Isaac de Benserade, La Bruyere's chief literary rival. However, many anecdotes are corroborated by reliable sources such as Louis Racine, who received them from his father, La Fontaine's friend for over thirty years. Perhaps the most telling anecdote from the Rue du Vieux Colombier quartet involves Molière, who, while Racine and Boileau were playfully mocking "le bonhomme" (a familiar nickname for La Fontaine), remarked to a bystander, "Nos beaux esprits ont beau faire, ils n'effaceront pas le bonhomme_{No matter how hard our gifted minds may try, they shall not erase the man}^French." This sentiment reflects his enduring and unique place in French literature. His life, especially his close relationship with nature and common people, infused his poetry with a folk-like quality, rich in the poetry of life and subtle, vivid reality.

3.1. Fables

Jean de La Fontaine's most celebrated literary achievement is his collection of Fables, published in twelve books between 1668 and 1694. These works represent the pinnacle of French verse fable tradition, building upon earlier collections that referenced Aesop but also drew from more recent sources, such as Marie de France's Ysopet (1190) and Gilles Corrozet's Les Fables du très ancien Esope, mises en rithme françoise (1542).
The first six books of the Fables primarily derive from Aesop and Horace, characterized by their concise narration in free verse. Later editions often incorporated stories from more contemporary sources or translations of Eastern tales, presented at greater length. These deceptively simple verses are easily memorized, yet they offer profound insights into human nature and societal conditions, often with a strong satirical edge that is considered more intense than that found in Aesop's original fables. Many of La Fontaine's lines have become standard, often proverbial, phrases in the French language. His fables are also notable for their occasional ironical ambivalence; for instance, "The Sculptor and the Statue of Jupiter" (IX.6) can be read as a satire on superstition, with its moral that "All men, as far as in them lies, Create realities of dreams^English" extending to broader critiques of belief systems. The first collection, Fables Choisies, dedicated to Louis XIV's six-year-old grandson, contained 124 fables, using animal characters to reflect true human behavior. His fables are a testament to the poetic capabilities of the French language and remain frequently quoted by French intellectuals today.
Some of his most famous fables include "The Cicada and the Ant" (also known as "The Ant and the Grasshopper"), "The Crow and the Fox", "The Wolf and the Lamb", "The Fox and the Grapes", "The Cock and the Fox", "The Old Man and His Sons", "The Hen with the Golden Eggs", "The Dog Who Dropped His Substance for the Shadow", "The Lion's Share", and "The Council of Rats".

Many of these fables, through their vivid animal characters, continue to resonate with readers, offering timeless lessons and satirical commentary on human society.

Further illustrations highlight the enduring appeal of La Fontaine's animal allegories, bringing to life characters that embody various human traits and societal roles.

3.2. Contes and other writings

Beyond his renowned Fables, La Fontaine's literary output included a significant body of tales and miscellaneous writings. His second major division of work consisted of the Contes et nouvelles en vers (Tales and Novels in Verse), which were nearly as popular as his fables during his time and were written over an extended period. The first of these tales appeared in 1664, with the last being published posthumously. These Contes are distinctively characterized by their overtly licentious and playful tone.
La Fontaine also ventured into other genres, including dramatic works, plays, and novels. Among his notable longer narrative poems are Adonis and his version of the Cupid and Psyche story, which, though written earlier, were not printed until 1669. His novel Psyché et Cupidon (Love of Psyche and Cupid) is a unique blend of prose and poetry, showcasing his versatility. In 1674, he even collaborated with Jean-Baptiste Lully on an opera, demonstrating his engagement with various artistic forms of his era. His collected tales number over sixty.

3.3. Literary style and themes

Jean de La Fontaine's literary style is celebrated for its unique blend of wit, conciseness, and profound insight. His poetic language is rich in folk elements, reflecting the vibrancy of everyday life and a subtle, vivid reality. This style is particularly evident in his Fables, which are characterized by their deceptively simple, yet deeply insightful, free verse. These fables offer keen observations into human nature and societal dynamics, often employing irony and ambivalence. Many of his verses have become ingrained in the French language as proverbs and common phrases, underscoring their enduring impact.
La Fontaine's writings are imbued with a strong sense of social commentary and compassion, particularly for the poor, often expressed through the allegorical world of animals. He possessed a profound understanding of both nature and society, fostered by his wide interactions with liberal intellectuals and his preference for a free, unrestrained lifestyle over courtly adherence, which may have contributed to King Louis XIV's disfavor. His narratives, whether in his fables or his more than sixty collected tales, showcase exceptional storytelling ability. Overall, his work is marked by a light, flexible, erudite, humorous, witty, and often dreamy quality, embodying a deep national character and serving as a symbol of French culture. The animal societies depicted in his fables serve as a powerful metaphor for French society of his time, exposing class conflicts and fundamental human traits, ensuring his poetry remains profoundly relevant across generations.

4.1. Depictions in art and media

During his lifetime, La Fontaine's renown led to portraits by three leading artists: Hyacinthe Rigaud painted him at age 63 in 1684, coinciding with his reception into the Académie française; Nicolas de Largillière captured him at 73; and a third portrait is attributed to François de Troy.

Sculptors also depicted La Fontaine. Jean-Jacques Caffieri's bust was exhibited in 1779 and given to the Comédie-Française, while Jean-Antoine Houdon created two versions of his bust in 1782, one now at the Philadelphia Museum of Art and another at his former patron Fouquet's castle, Vaux-le-Vicomte. A full-length marble statue by Pierre Julien, commissioned in 1781 and exhibited in 1785, is housed in the Louvre. It portrays him in contemplation, seated on a gnarled tree with a vine, a manuscript of "The Fox and the Grapes" on his knee, and a fox at his feet. This iconic image inspired small porcelain models by Sèvres pottery and Frankenthal pottery. Later, small models were made of Etienne Marin Melingue's bronze statue (1840), depicting the poet leaning thoughtfully against a rock. The Louvre's Cour Napoléon also features a standing stone statue by Jean-Louis Jaley from 1857.

In Paris, a commemorative monument was erected at the Jardin du Ranelagh in 1891, featuring a bronze bust by Achille Dumilâtre. Though melted down during World War II, it was replaced in 1983 by Charles Correia's standing statue, showing the fabulist looking down at the fox and the crow on the steps and plinth below him.

His birthplace, Château-Thierry, hosts several statues, including Charles-René Laitié's standing statue, a gift from Louis XVIII in 1824, which depicts the race between The Tortoise and the Hare. This statue, damaged during the Second Battle of the Marne, now stands in front of his former house, which is a museum. Outside the museum is a life-sized statue by Bernard Seurre, and inside, a clay bust by Louis-Pierre Deseine.

La Fontaine's image has also appeared on various commemorative items. He was featured as the King of Spades on a playing card during the French Revolution, replacing royalty with Philosophes. A bronze commemorative medal by Jacques-Édouard Gatteaux was issued in 1816 as part of the Great Men of France series, and he also appeared in the Histoire de France series. In 1995, to mark the 300th anniversary of his death, his head appeared on a 100 FRF coin, with the fox and crow fable on the reverse. That same year, the asteroid 5780 Lafontaine was named in his honor, and a series of 2.8 EUR fable stamps was released. Other stamps include a 1938 55-centimes issue featuring The Wolf and the Lamb and a 1971 Monaco 50-cent stamp for his 350th birth anniversary. Since 2006, he has appeared on the annual Fables de La Fontaine coin series celebrating the Chinese lunar new year, with his portrait on the reverse and the zodiac animal on the face.
Fictional portrayals of La Fontaine reflect contemporary views. In Alexandre Dumas's novel The Vicomte of Bragelonne, he is depicted as a bumbling and scatterbrained courtier of Nicolas Fouquet. However, the 2007 film Jean de La Fontaine - le défi presents him as a figure who resisted the absolutist rule of Louis XIV following Fouquet's downfall. In 2011, on his 390th birth anniversary, he was honored with a Google Doodle.

4.2. Cultural impact and reception

Jean de La Fontaine's cultural impact in France has been profound and enduring, solidifying his status as a national literary icon whose reputation has never faded. His Fables are considered masterpieces of the French language, celebrated for their poetic function and their ability to convey deep insights into human nature and societal conditions. These works are a fundamental part of French education, with virtually all French schoolchildren memorizing several of his fables, ensuring his stories and moral lessons are known and remembered across generations. Many of his lines have become proverbial phrases, demonstrating his lasting influence on the French language itself, such as "Tous les chemins mènent à Rome_{All roads lead to Rome}^French" and the expression "tirer les marrons du feu_{to pull chestnuts out of the fire}^French."
La Fontaine's unique style, characterized by its wit, conciseness, and multi-layered meanings, reflects his deep understanding of both the natural world and human society. He was known for his compassionate portrayal of the common people and his critical, often satirical, observations of societal flaws, particularly class conflicts, through the allegorical lens of his animal characters. This blend of folk wisdom and sophisticated commentary has ensured his continued relevance across all ages and eras. His work is seen as a symbol of French culture, embodying a nationalistic spirit while maintaining universal appeal. His significance is further highlighted by literary critics like Gustave Flaubert, who considered him the only French poet before Victor Hugo to truly master the intricate structures of the French language. His global reach is also evident in translations and adaptations, such as those by Nguyễn Văn Vĩnh who introduced La Fontaine to Vietnamese literature, transliterating his name as "Lã Phụng Tiên^Vietnamese."