Huo Guang

2.1. Birth and Family Connections

Huo Guang was born around 130 BCE in Pingyang County, Hedong Commandery (modern-day Linfen, Shanxi province). His father was Huo Zhongru. He was the younger half-brother of the celebrated general Huo Qubing, who was born from Huo Zhongru's earlier liaison with Wei Shaonü, the daughter of Pingyang Marquis Cao Shou and Wei Ou, and half-sister of Empress Wei Zifu, Emperor Wu's second empress. This familial tie to the influential Wei clan, which included the famous general Wei Qing, provided Huo Guang with an initial connection to the imperial court. Huo Guang is described as having a calm demeanor, being tall with white skin, and possessing beautiful eyelashes and a beard, considered a handsome man of his time.

2.2. Early Career

Huo Guang's early career in the Han bureaucracy is not extensively documented, but his progression was steady, largely facilitated by his brother Huo Qubing. Around 121 BCE, when Huo Qubing was appointed General of Cavalry and Light Chariots (Piaoqi Jiangjun) and campaigned against the Xiongnu, he met his father Huo Zhongru in Pingyang County. It was during this reunion that Huo Qubing brought his younger half-brother, Huo Guang, to the capital, Chang'an. Through his brother's recommendation, Huo Guang, though only about ten years old at the time, was appointed as a Langjun, then a Caoguan, and later a Shizhong.

After Huo Qubing's death in 117 BCE, Huo Guang continued to be favored by Emperor Wu. He was promoted to Fengche Duwei (奉車都尉), responsible for the emperor's chariots, and then Guanglu Dafu (光祿大夫), a high-ranking official overseeing palace affairs. By 89 BCE, he, along with Jin Midi and Shangguan Jie, played a role in thwarting a rebellion plot by Zhongbuxia He Luo and his brother. For his service, Huo Guang was granted the title of Marquess of Bolu (博陆侯). By 88 BCE, near the end of Emperor Wu's reign, he was already a prominent figure within the court.

4.1. Appointment as Regent and Consolidation of Power

As Emperor Zhao was still a child at the time of his ascension, Huo Guang effectively took charge of the court, becoming the most prestigious and powerful among the regents. For approximately six years, from 87 BCE to 81 BCE, while Emperor Zhao was unable to make independent decisions, Huo Guang maintained firm control over the administration, ensuring the country remained stable and peaceful. This period saw Huo Guang's authority grow significantly, leading him to be known as the one who held "秉政_Bǐngzhèng^Chinese", meaning he held the reins of government. In March 85 BCE, Huo Guang was formally created the Marquess of Bolu.

4.2. Relationships with Key Officials

Huo Guang's immense power inevitably led to conflicts with other influential figures in the court. Emperor Zhao's youth created tension with his older brothers, leading to conspiracies. In 86 BCE, a plot involving Liu Dan, the Prince of Yan (an elder son of Emperor Wu), was uncovered. While other conspirators were executed, Prince Liu Dan was not punished, a decision widely attributed to Huo Guang.

A significant challenge to Huo Guang's authority came from the Shangguan family. Although Huo Guang had initially fostered good relations by marrying his daughter to Shangguan An, the son of co-regent Shangguan Jie, their ambitions soon clashed. Following the death of Jin Midi in 85 BCE, who had served as a moderating influence, Shangguan Jie grew increasingly jealous of Huo Guang's dominant position. In 84 BCE, Shangguan Jie further attempted to strengthen his family's influence by marrying his granddaughter (who was also Huo Guang's granddaughter) to the 11-year-old Emperor Zhao. She was subsequently made empress in April 83 BCE. Huo Guang initially opposed this marriage, which further strained his relationship with the Shangguan family. The Shangguan clan, including Princess Eyi (Emperor Zhao's elder sister and guardian) and another important official, Sang Hongyang, sought to promote their own interests, often clashing with Huo Guang's policies, particularly regarding the appointment of favored individuals to high office.

4.3. Ennoblement of Daughter as Empress

While Huo Guang's own daughter was married to Shangguan An, it was his granddaughter (daughter of Shangguan An and Huo Guang's daughter) who became Empress Shangguan. This marriage, orchestrated by Shangguan Jie, was a strategic move to solidify the Shangguan family's influence, though it also indirectly linked Huo Guang to the imperial family through his granddaughter's position as empress.

4.4. Shangguan Jie's Conspiracy and Downfall

The growing conflict between Huo Guang and the Shangguan family culminated in a major political crisis in 80 BCE. Shangguan Jie, along with Liu Dan (Prince of Yan), Princess Eyi, and Sang Hongyang, formed a conspiracy to undermine Huo Guang. They made false allegations of treason against Huo Guang to Emperor Zhao. However, the young Emperor Zhao, who had developed trust in Huo Guang, did not act on these accusations. The conspirators then escalated their plot, planning a direct coup d'état to eliminate Huo Guang and potentially depose Emperor Zhao in favor of Liu Dan.

Emperor Zhao, despite his youth, displayed remarkable discernment. When presented with a fabricated letter from the Prince of Yan accusing Huo Guang, the 14-year-old emperor observed that if the Prince of Yan truly knew of a rebellion, the news would not have arrived so slowly, nor would Huo Guang need to conspire with a minor official. He dismissed the accusations and ordered an investigation into the accusers, causing panic among the conspirators. The plot was ultimately discovered, leading to severe repercussions. Most of the conspirators, including Shangguan Jie and Sang Hongyang, were executed. Liu Dan and Princess Eyi were compelled to commit suicide. Empress Shangguan, Huo Guang's granddaughter, was spared due to her familial ties to both the Huo and Shangguan clans.

Following this major purge, Huo Guang formally offered to return all governing authority to Emperor Zhao. However, Emperor Zhao continued to rely heavily on Huo Guang's counsel and leadership. Huo Guang, as chief minister and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, became the emperor's almost exclusive advisor and political mentor. He consistently advocated for policies that benefited the state, such as issuing amnesties, avoiding costly wars with other nations (including a return to the "heqin" or peace-through-marriage policy with the Xiongnu), promoting agriculture, preserving grain to prevent famine, and focusing on electing and promoting capable officials while ensuring fair trials and investigations. This period of stability and prosperity, largely attributed to Huo Guang's governance, is historically known as the "Zhao-Xuan Zhongxing" (Restoration of Zhao and Xuan), restoring the Han dynasty's strength comparable to the reigns of Emperor Wen and Emperor Jing.

5.1. Deposition of Emperor He

In June 74 BCE, Emperor Zhao died at the age of 21 without leaving any issue. Despite the existence of several older brothers of Emperor Zhao, Huo Guang considered them incompetent and unfit for the imperial throne. After careful investigation and consideration, he decided to enthrone Liu He, Emperor Zhao's nephew and the Prince of Changyi.

However, Liu He proved to be an utterly unsuitable ruler. Upon his installation as emperor, he immediately began to engage in excessive spending and behaved with extreme impropriety, particularly during the period of mourning for Emperor Zhao. He brought over 200 retainers from his principality, indulged in debauchery, neglected state affairs, and even used imperial carriages for his servants, causing a complete disruption of court protocols. Historical records claim that within just 27 days of his reign, Liu He committed 1,127 acts of misconduct. Faced with such blatant disregard for imperial decorum and governance, Huo Guang made the momentous decision to depose the new emperor, an action unprecedented in Chinese history. Under an edict issued by Empress Dowager Shangguan (Huo Guang's own granddaughter), Prince He was removed from the throne after a mere 27 or 28 days as emperor and exiled back to his former principality of Changyi, stripped of his princely title.

5.2. Installation of Emperor Xuan

With Liu He deposed, Huo Guang faced the challenge of finding a suitable successor. There was no obvious imperial heir who met Huo Guang's stringent standards for a diligent and skilled emperor. At the suggestion of another senior official, Bing Ji, Huo Guang ultimately chose Liu Bingyi (later known as Emperor Xuan of Han), a great-grandson of Emperor Wu. Liu Bingyi's grandfather, Liu Ju, had been Emperor Wu's crown prince but had tragically fallen out of favor and been killed, leading to his descendants being removed from the imperial household.

Liu Bingyi's background, having lived among the common people and experienced hardship, was seen by Huo Guang as a valuable asset, making him more understanding of the populace and less prone to the excesses of imperial life. Upon his accession, Liu Bingyi adopted the name Liu Xun and became Emperor Xuan. Huo Guang continued to hold the reins of power, retaining his "秉政_Bǐngzhèng^Chinese" authority, and Emperor Xuan, despite being the new sovereign, continued to defer to Huo Guang on all major state affairs.

6.1. Shared Governance with Emperor Xuan

In 73 BCE, Huo Guang, in a gesture of humility, offered to return all authority to Emperor Xuan. However, the emperor, recognizing Huo Guang's indispensable experience and power, declined and reaffirmed that all important matters were to be presented to Huo Guang first before being brought to the emperor for final approval. This established a dynamic of shared imperial powers, where Huo Guang continued to wield significant de facto authority. To further solidify his family's position, Emperor Xuan appointed Huo Guang's son, Huo Yu, and his grandnephews, Huo Yun and Huo Shan (who were also grandsons of Huo Qubing), to key official positions within his administration. Additionally, Huo Guang's sons-in-law, Fan Mingyou and Deng Guanghan, were made high military commanders, ensuring the Huo clan's pervasive influence across both civil and military spheres.

Despite this outward show of respect and shared governance, it was recorded that Emperor Xuan secretly feared Huo Guang, regarding him as "a thorn in (his) back" (芒刺在背_{mang ci zai bei}^Chinese). This underlying apprehension, coupled with Huo Guang's apparent unwillingness or inability to rein in the increasingly arrogant behavior of his clansmen, would ultimately prove disastrous for the Huo family.

6.2. Huo Clan's Actions and Influence

The Huo clan's ambition and arrogance grew unchecked during this period. In 71 BCE, Huo Guang's wife, Lady Xian, harbored a strong desire to see her own daughter, Huo Chengjun, elevated to the position of empress. At this time, Emperor Xuan's beloved wife, Xu Pingjun, who had been with him since before his ascension and had given birth to their son, Liu Shi (the future Emperor Yuan of Han), was pregnant again. To achieve her goal, Lady Xian conspired with a female court physician named Chunyu Yan. Lady Xian bribed Chunyu Yan, who then poisoned Empress Xu Pingjun by adding a potent toxin, fuzi, to her medicine. Empress Xu and her unborn child tragically died.

Despite the suspicious circumstances, Emperor Xuan, constrained by the immense power of the Huo clan, was unable to immediately investigate or pursue justice for his deceased empress. He was forced to endure the situation, and in April 70 BCE, Huo Chengjun was formally created empress. This act of murder, orchestrated by Huo Guang's wife, cast a significant shadow over Huo Guang's legacy, even if his direct involvement was not proven. It laid the groundwork for the future downfall of the entire Huo clan, as Emperor Xuan harbored a deep resentment and a desire for retribution.

7.1. Death of Huo Guang

In April 68 BCE, Huo Guang fell ill and died. He was 63 years old. Emperor Xuan and Empress Dowager Shangguan (Huo Guang's granddaughter) performed the almost unprecedented act of personally attending Huo Guang's wake, demonstrating the immense respect and honor still afforded to him at the time of his death. An impressive mausoleum was constructed for him in Maoling, near Xi'an, Shaanxi. He was posthumously granted the title of Xuan Cheng.

Following Huo Guang's death, his sons, sons-in-law, and grandnephews initially retained their important posts and were even granted marquessates. His son, Huo Yu, inherited his father's marquessate, and his grandnephew, Huo Shan, was granted 3,000 households to continue the lineage and sacrifices for Huo Qubing, whose own son had died without issue. The Huo family continued to live a life of immense luxury, akin to that of the imperial household, and Lady Xian, Huo Guang's widow, even formed a passionate relationship with Huo Guang's former slave master, Feng Zidu. Huo Guang had served the Han court for a total of 53 years, spanning four emperors: Emperor Wu, Emperor Zhao, Liu He (Prince of Changyi), and Emperor Xuan. He held the title of Marquess of Bolu for 19 years.

7.2. Clan's Arrogance and Conspiracy

Despite the honors bestowed upon Huo Guang posthumously, Emperor Xuan grew increasingly discontent with the perceived arrogance and overreach of the Huo clan. He began a gradual process of stripping them of their actual powers while allowing them to retain their formal titles. For instance, Huo Yu was appointed Grand Marshal but without real authority, and Huo Guang's son-in-law, Zhao Ping, also lost his military command. Emperor Xuan also replaced all imperial guards in the Weiyang and Changle Palaces as a precautionary measure.

A pivotal moment occurred in May 67 BCE when Emperor Xuan made Liu Shi, his son by the deceased Empress Xu, the crown prince. This decision greatly angered Lady Xian, who had poisoned Empress Xu to make her own daughter, Huo Chengjun, empress. Lady Xian allegedly instructed Empress Huo to murder the crown prince, but all attempts failed. Around this time, rumors that the Huos had murdered Empress Xu intensified, further fueling Emperor Xuan's resolve to curb their power.

In 66 BCE, Lady Xian, in a moment of desperation, revealed to her son and grandnephews that she had, indeed, murdered Empress Xu. Fearing the emperor's retribution if he obtained irrefutable proof, Lady Xian, her son Huo Yu, her grandnephews Huo Yun and Huo Shan, and her sons-in-law formed a desperate conspiracy. Their plan involved assassinating Crown Prince Liu Shi, Chancellor Wei Xiang, and Xu Guanghan (Empress Xu's father), and then deposing Emperor Xuan to install Huo Shan as the new emperor.

7.3. Purge of the Huo Clan

The elaborate conspiracy of the Huo clan was discovered in July 66 BCE. Emperor Xuan acted swiftly and decisively. He ordered the immediate arrest and execution of Huo Ou, while Huo Shan and Huo Yun were compelled to commit suicide. The entire Huo clan was systematically dismantled. Over 1,000 members and associates of the Huo family were implicated and executed, with Huo Yu being subjected to the particularly harsh punishment of waist-chopping. Only Huo Guang's son-in-law, Jin Shang, was spared due to his cooperation in exposing the plot. Empress Huo Chengjun was deposed from her position and exiled to the Zhaotai Palace. Twelve years later, in 56 BCE, she committed suicide. Even Huo Guang's body was reportedly moved to Zhulian, a less prestigious burial site.

Despite the brutal destruction of the Huo clan, Emperor Xuan continued to honor Huo Guang himself posthumously. In 51 BCE, when he commissioned portraits of 11 great statesmen of his administration to be displayed in the great hall of his palace, Huo Guang's portrait was placed first. Uniquely among the 11, Huo Guang was referred to by his title and family name only, without his given name, which was considered an even greater honor than that bestowed upon the other ten.

8.1. Merits and Positive Contributions

Huo Guang is widely admired for his skillful administration of the empire and his crucial role in maintaining state stability during a period of imperial transition. Historians praise his selflessness in taking the unprecedented risk of deposing an unfit emperor, Liu He, for the greater good of the state. His decisive actions in managing the succession of Emperor Zhao and later Emperor Xuan are seen as critical in preserving the Han dynasty's integrity. Under his regency, the Western Han dynasty experienced a period of stability, economic development, and social prosperity, often referred to as the "Zhao-Xuan Zhongxing" (Restoration of Zhao and Xuan), which saw the nation's strength restored to levels comparable to the earlier reigns of Emperor Wen and Emperor Jing. He consistently advocated for policies such as general amnesties, promoting agriculture, and avoiding costly wars to allow the economy to recover. His dedication, wisdom, and decisiveness in governance are frequently highlighted as his most significant contributions.

8.2. Criticisms and Controversies

Despite his achievements, Huo Guang has also faced significant criticism. Historian Lü Si, in his Comprehensive History of China, expressed skepticism regarding Emperor Wu's decision to entrust Huo Guang with regency, noting that Huo Guang was merely a palace guard and Jin Midi was a Xiongnu, making their appointment as regents seem unlikely given traditional Han imperial practices. Huo Guang is often criticized for his dictatorial governing style, which saw him consolidate immense power, effectively reducing the young emperors to figureheads. His alleged nepotism, wherein he placed numerous family members and loyalists in key positions, is another point of contention. Most significantly, his failure to control the arrogant and corrupt behavior of his clansmen, particularly his wife Lady Xian's role in the poisoning of Empress Xu Pingjun, is seen as a major flaw. Many historians argue that his inability to rein in his family's excesses ultimately led to their brutal destruction after his death, highlighting the dangers of unchecked power and familial overreach. Later figures in Chinese history, such as Wang Mang, would attempt to emulate Huo Guang's initial rise to power, using the guise of regency to usurp the throne, demonstrating the negative precedent his actions could inadvertently set. The debate continues among scholars as to whether Huo Guang was primarily a virtuous minister or a power-hungry official.

8.3. Impact on Chinese History

Huo Guang's legacy left a profound impact on Chinese political thought and practice. He is often compared to other famous regents in Chinese history, such as Yi Yin of the Shang dynasty, Duke of Zhou of the Zhou dynasty, Zhuge Liang of the Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period, and Zhang Juzheng of the Ming dynasty. The phrase "伊霍之事_{Yī Huò zhī shì}^Chinese" (the affairs of Yi and Huo) became a common idiom to describe the act of a powerful minister deposing and installing emperors. However, this phrase itself carries complex interpretations, as some historical accounts of Yi Yin depict him as an authoritarian figure.

Huo Guang's actions served as a precedent for future powerful regents, demonstrating how a minister could wield supreme authority, even to the point of deposing an emperor, ostensibly for the good of the state. Conversely, emperors who wished to accuse officials of treason would sometimes euphemistically refer to them as "wanting to act like Huo Guang," highlighting the dual nature of his legacy as both a model of decisive leadership and a cautionary tale of unchecked power. His deposition of Liu He, Prince of Changyi, was even cited in later periods, such as in 1388 during the Goryeo dynasty in Korea, when Yun Sojong presented the "Biography of Huo Guang" from the Book of Han to Yi Seong-gye (the future founder of the Joseon dynasty), implicitly advising him to depose King U.

10.1. Connection to the Japanese Kanpaku Title

Huo Guang's role as a powerful regent directly influenced the origin of the Japanese title of Kanpaku (関白), which denoted the chief advisor to the emperor and de facto ruler during certain periods. When Emperor Xuan acceded to the throne, he issued an edict entrusting power to Huo Guang, using the phrase "関り白す_{kankari mōsu}^Japanese", meaning "to be involved and report." This phrase is believed to be the etymological root of the term "Kanpaku." Furthermore, the alternative name for the Kanpaku, "Hakuroku" (博陸), directly derives from Huo Guang's title, Marquess of Bolu (博陆侯).

The historical parallel between Huo Guang and the Kanpaku was explicitly recognized in Japan. Fujiwara no Mototsune, the first official Kanpaku, famously deposed Emperor Yōzei and installed Emperor Kōkō. This act was lauded in the Japanese historical work Jinnō Shōtōki as being analogous to Huo Guang's deposition of Liu He and installation of Emperor Xuan, highlighting Huo Guang as a precedent for powerful ministers who could act decisively in matters of imperial succession.

10.2. Connection to Vietnamese History

Huo Guang's influence also extended to Vietnamese history. During the Trần dynasty in Vietnam, when Hồ Quý Ly began to consolidate immense power within the court, the Retired Emperor Trần Nghệ Tông, before his death, commissioned portraits of great ministers who had served young emperors without usurping the throne. These included Huo Guang, along with Duke of Zhou, Zhuge Liang, and Tô Hiến Thành, known as the "Four Regents" (Tứ phụ). These portraits were given to Hồ Quý Ly, implicitly advising him to follow their example in supporting Emperor Thuận Tông. Despite swearing to adhere to this advice, Hồ Quý Ly later usurped the Trần dynasty.