1. Life
Guo Zixing's life was defined by his early anti-establishment activities, his pivotal role in the Red Turban Rebellion, and the complex, often contentious, relationship he developed with Zhu Yuanzhang, who would eventually overshadow him.
1.1. Early Life and the Beginning of Rebellion
Guo Zixing was born in 1302 in Dingyuan County, located within Haozhou. His father was a fortune teller, and his mother was the daughter of a wealthy man, with some accounts suggesting she was a blind woman. He was the middle child among three sons and one daughter. From a young age, Guo Zixing was known for his love of chivalry and formed connections with many influential figures. He possessed the qualities of a good fighter but was also characterized by a rash temper.
As a prominent leader of a local White Lotus Society and a devout follower of the Maitreya Buddha, Guo Zixing held a strong belief that a period of significant societal change was imminent. Leveraging his personal wealth, he began to gather a loyal group of soldiers, forming the core of his rebel force. In February 1352, Guo Zixing, along with several comrades including 孫德崖Sūn DéyáChinese (Sun Deya) and 趙均用Zhào JūnyòngChinese (Zhao Junyong), who were made commanders-in-chief, led their followers to successfully capture Haozhou. This marked the beginning of his open rebellion against the Yuan dynasty.
1.2. Activities in Haozhou and Leadership
Despite the successful capture of Haozhou, Guo Zixing's position as a unified leader was precarious from the outset. He grappled with significant challenges in controlling his subordinate commanders and various factions within his forces. Internal conflicts were rampant, particularly among key figures like Sun Deya and Zhao Junyong, as well as 彭大Péng DàChinese (Peng Da), which severely hindered his ability to expand his influence effectively.
The Yuan dynasty's initial response to the fall of Haozhou was notably ineffective, consisting largely of undisciplined raids on villages and the burning of temples. It was during this chaotic period, specifically in April 1352, that Zhu Yuanzhang, whose temple residence had been burned by Yuan forces, joined Guo Zixing's command in Haozhou. Zhu quickly rose in prominence within Guo's ranks, initially serving as a commander of ten men.
The influx of other rebel generals, such as Peng Da and Zhao Junyong, who sought refuge in Haozhou in early 1353 after being driven from Xuzhou by Yuan forces under Toqto'a, further strained the city's limited resources. This created new factions and intensified existing internal rivalries. When Guo Zixing sided with Peng Da, he was subsequently kidnapped by the opposing faction led by Sun Deya and Zhao Junyong. Zhu Yuanzhang, upon returning from an expedition, played a crucial role in rescuing Guo Zixing by bringing Guo's younger wife, her children, and Peng Da to the opposing faction's camp and raiding Sun Deya's residence.
In the winter of 1352, Yuan forces led by the hydraulic engineer 賈魯Jiǎ LǔChinese (Jia Lu) besieged Haozhou. The siege lasted until June 1353, concluding only after Jia Lu's death. Following Peng Da's death, Zhao Junyong emerged as the strongest leader in Haozhou, which led to a period where both Guo Zixing and Zhu Yuanzhang fell out of favor. Despite this, in the autumn of 1353, Guo Zixing granted an independent commission to Zhu Yuanzhang, a decision that proved instrumental in Zhu's future rise to power. During this time, Zhao Junyong and Guo Zixing attempted to capture Xuyi, hoping to follow with Xuzhou. Zhao, perhaps hoping Zhu would fail, sent him south toward the Yangtze River. However, Zhu achieved significant victories, capturing Dingyuan, 驢牌寨Lǘpái ZhàiChinese (Lupai Fort), and Chuzhou, and ambushing the Yuan general 張知院Zhāng ZhīyuànChinese (Zhang Zhiyuan). These successes swelled Zhu's forces to 20,000 men. Observing Zhu's growing strength, Guo Zixing and his 10,000 men subsequently left Zhao Junyong to join forces with Zhu.
1.3. Relationship with Zhu Yuanzhang and Power Struggle
The relationship between Guo Zixing and Zhu Yuanzhang, initially one of mentor and protégé, steadily evolved into a complex power struggle marked by increasing tension. Zhu Yuanzhang quickly became a favorite of Guo Zixing, and Guo's younger wife played a significant role in convincing Guo to arrange the marriage of his adopted daughter, the future Empress Ma, to Zhu. Zhu was reportedly drawn to Empress Ma's dexterity and mental clarity. Zhu Yuanzhang also developed a close relationship with Guo's younger wife, eventually taking her daughter, Guo Huifei, as a concubine. This daughter later bore Zhu Yuanzhang three sons: Zhu Chun, Zhu Gui, and Zhu Huì.
Guo Zixing entrusted Zhu Yuanzhang with command over strategic territories such as Chuzhou and Hezhou. However, as Zhu's military successes mounted, tensions between the two leaders became more pronounced. Although they agreed to jointly capture Hezhou, with Guo sending his troops first and Zhu's general Tang He later securing the city, Zhu's actions often fueled Guo's resentment. For instance, Zhu publicly humiliated several of Guo's generals, including Guo's brother-in-law, 張天祐Zhāng TiānyòuChinese (Zhang Tianyou). Furthermore, after a failed Yuan counter-siege, Zhu allowed Guo's long-standing enemy, Sun Deya, to join their combined forces, a move that significantly deepened Guo Zixing's animosity toward Zhu. This series of events highlighted the diminishing authority of Guo Zixing and the inexorable rise of Zhu Yuanzhang within the rebel ranks.
2. Death
Guo Zixing died in May 1355, at the age of 53. While some accounts state he died in Heyang, others indicate his death occurred in Chuzhou on August 18, 1355. He succumbed to illness, having been constantly troubled by the relentless internal conflicts among his fellow rebel commanders.
3. Posthumous Impact and Assessment
Guo Zixing's death marked a critical turning point in the Red Turban Rebellion, directly facilitating Zhu Yuanzhang's rise to undisputed leadership and shaping the future of the Ming dynasty.
3.1. Zhu Yuanzhang's Consolidation of Power and the Fate of Guo's Children
Following Guo Zixing's death, his elder son, Guo Tianxu, and his brother-in-law, Zhang Tianyou, considered themselves his rightful successors. Their claim was formally recognized by Han Lin'er, the nominal emperor of the Northern Red Turbans, who held significant symbolic legitimacy. Initially, Zhu Yuanzhang expressed reluctance to accept their authority, famously questioning, "Ought the man with the big stick to be able to accept the authority of others?" However, recognizing the strategic advantage of Han Lin'er's legitimacy, Zhu later decided to leverage this association and provisionally accepted Guo Tianxu and Zhang Tianyou into his command.
Both Guo Tianxu and Zhang Tianyou were subsequently killed during Zhu Yuanzhang's attack on Nanjing in October 1355. Guo Zixing's second son, Guo Tianjue, who had been appointed Zhu's second-in-command in April 1356, was later executed after being accused of plotting a rebellion. Some historical accounts suggest that Zhu Yuanzhang orchestrated the murders of both Guo Tianxu and Guo Tianjue, driven by a desire to eliminate potential rivals and consolidate his own power. These developments effectively solidified Zhu Yuanzhang's position as the de facto leader of the Northern Red Turbans, paving the way for his eventual establishment of the Ming dynasty. Guo Zixing's daughter, Guo Huifei, became a concubine of Zhu Yuanzhang and gave birth to three of his sons.
3.2. Posthumous Honors and Historical Perspectives
In 1370, two years after Zhu Yuanzhang ascended to the throne as the Hongwu Emperor and founded the Ming dynasty, Guo Zixing was posthumously honored with the title of Prince of Chuyang (滁陽王Chúyáng WángChinese).
Guo Zixing's historical assessment has been influenced by his association with the White Lotus Society, a group that was often viewed with suspicion by later imperial dynasties. During the Qing dynasty, the Kangxi Emperor expressed concern over what he perceived as slander against Zhu Yuanzhang in the History of Ming, particularly regarding Zhu's early connections to the White Lotus Society through Guo Zixing. In response, Zhang Tingyu, the chief compiler of the History of Ming, justified the decision to pair Guo Zixing's biography with that of Han Lin'er by emphasizing that Zhu Yuanzhang maintained nominal allegiance to Han until 1367, thereby legitimizing Zhu's early rebel activities within a recognized, albeit rebel, framework. Guo Zixing's biography is recorded in Volume 122 of the History of Ming, providing a crucial historical record of his life and his integral, though ultimately overshadowed, role in the events leading to the Ming dynasty's foundation.