1. Overview
Gunpei Yokoi, sometimes transliterated as Gumpei Yokoi, was a Japanese toy maker and video game designer widely recognized as the "Father of Handheld Games" for his pivotal contributions to the industry. As a long-time employee of Nintendo, he played a crucial role in the company's transformation from a traditional playing card manufacturer into a global video game giant. Yokoi is best known for creating the Game & Watch handheld system, inventing the cross-shaped Control Pad, and being the original designer of the immensely successful Game Boy. His influence extended to producing critically acclaimed video game franchises such as Metroid and Kid Icarus. He championed an innovative design philosophy known as "Lateral Thinking with Withered Technology", which prioritized utilizing mature, inexpensive technology in novel ways to create engaging and accessible products, a principle that continues to shape Nintendo's approach to this day.
2. Early Life and Education
Gunpei Yokoi was born on September 10, 1941, in Kyoto, Japan. He developed a keen interest in model trains from a young age, purchasing an O gauge set in third grade and transitioning to HO scale by junior high. During high school, he completed a detailed layout named "SP Line," which was featured in the January 1958 issue of the specialized magazine Tetsudo Mokei Shumi (Railway Model Hobby). His passion for railways continued into his university years, where he was an active member of the railway club at Doshisha University. Yokoi graduated from Doshisha University's Faculty of Engineering with a degree in electrical engineering.
3. Nintendo Career
Gunpei Yokoi's career at Nintendo spanned over three decades, marked by a transformative shift from toy manufacturing to pioneering video game development.
3.1. Entry into Nintendo and Early Roles
After graduating from Doshisha University in 1965, Yokoi initially sought employment at major electronics manufacturers but was unsuccessful due to his academic performance. He joined Nintendo, then primarily a manufacturer of hanafuda playing cards and playing cards, largely because it was a local company that offered him a position. He was reportedly the first engineering graduate hired by Nintendo. His initial responsibilities involved maintaining the assembly-line machines used to manufacture hanafuda cards as an electrical chief engineer.
In 1966, Hiroshi Yamauchi, then president of Nintendo, visited a hanafuda factory where Yokoi was working. Yamauchi noticed a toy Yokoi had created for his own amusement during his spare time: an extending arm made of lattice-like structures. Impressed, Yamauchi ordered Yokoi to develop it into a commercial product for the upcoming Christmas season. The resulting product, the Ultra Hand, became a massive success, even spawning copycat products. Its popularity led to the establishment of a dedicated "Development Division" within Nintendo, initially staffed by Yokoi and accounting manager Hiroshi Imanishi, to focus on toy development. As the number of products grew, so did the division's personnel.
3.2. Toy Development
During his time in the Development Division, Yokoi applied his philosophy of "Lateral Thinking with Withered Technology" to create numerous successful toys. Key products included the Ultra Machine, a miniature baseball pitching machine, the Love Tester, a simple lie detector-like device designed to measure affection, and the Light Ray Gun series, a line of shooting toys. While the Light Ray Gun series was a major hit, it faced profitability issues due to manufacturing defects.
Yokoi also worked on the Laser Clay Shooting System in 1973, an arcade game based on his light gun technology. Despite initial optimism from President Yamauchi for aggressive arcade expansion, the project suffered significant financial losses for Nintendo due to the 1973 oil crisis and subsequent construction plan withdrawals. Although Yokoi was not held responsible for the losses, the incident nearly crippled the company. Following this, Nintendo's arcade business shifted from electro-mechanical games to computer games, and Yokoi returned to focusing on toy development. Notable works from this period include the Chiritory, a remote-controlled vacuum cleaner with game elements, and the Ten Billion Barrel, a three-dimensional puzzle inspired by the Rubik's Cube.
3.3. Transition to Video Games
In 1974, Nintendo made a strategic shift towards video games, and Yokoi transitioned to become one of the company's first game designers, preceded only by Genyo Takeda. A pivotal moment for Yokoi's future innovations occurred during a ride on the Shinkansen (bullet train), where he observed a bored businessman playing with an LCD calculator by pressing its buttons. This observation sparked the idea for a device that combined a watch with a miniature video game, leading to the creation of the Game & Watch series.
In 1979, the Development Division was reorganized and split, with Yokoi becoming the head of Research & Development 1 (R&D1). He remained in this position until his departure in 1996. While Yokoi primarily focused on generating ideas, the technical aspects of development were often handled by other engineers, notably Satoru Okada. Yokoi was known for his aversion to computers, with Masayuki Uemura noting that their paths diverged as engineers due to Yokoi's preference for low-tech solutions. R&D1, under Yokoi, not only developed handheld game hardware and software but also ventured into arcade and home console game development, often acting as a versatile "guerrilla unit" for Nintendo.
3.4. Key Hardware and Inventions
Yokoi's innovations in hardware design profoundly shaped the video game industry:
- Game & Watch (1980): Inspired by his observation on the Shinkansen, Yokoi developed this series of handheld electronic games. The Game & Watch line, released from 1980 to 1991, featured simple LCD-based animated mini-games and included 60 variations. It was a commercial success, selling over 43 M units worldwide.
- Cross-shaped Control Pad (1983): Yokoi invented the iconic cross-shaped directional pad (D-pad) for the Game & Watch series. This intuitive input method, which allows for precise directional control, became a de facto standard for subsequent Nintendo consoles, including the Famicom Controller and the NES, and was widely adopted across the entire video game industry. Despite inventing it, Yokoi did not patent the D-pad under his name due to his extremely busy schedule at the time.
- R.O.B. (1985): The Robotic Operating Buddy (R.O.B.) was a peripheral for the NES, designed by Yokoi. It was initially released to help market the NES as a toy rather than a video game console, circumventing the stigma left by the video game crash of 1983.
- NES Zapper (1985): Yokoi also designed the light gun peripheral for the NES, used for games like Duck Hunt and Wild Gunman.
- Game Boy (1989): This handheld console, designed by Yokoi, became a global phenomenon. Its success was largely attributed to Yokoi's "Lateral Thinking with Withered Technology" philosophy, which prioritized affordability, durability, and long battery life (through a monochrome screen) over cutting-edge graphics. This strategy allowed the Game Boy to dominate the market against more technologically advanced competitors like the Sega Game Gear and Atari Lynx.
- Super Scope (1992): A light gun peripheral for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, following the success of the NES Zapper.
- Virtual Boy (1995): One of Yokoi's later designs, the Virtual Boy was a stereoscopic 3D gaming console. Despite its innovative concept, it was a commercial failure due to various factors, including its monochrome red display, discomfort during use, and limited game library. Nintendo denied that the Virtual Boy's poor performance was the reason for Yokoi's departure, stating his retirement was coincidental. According to David Sheff's book Game Over, Yokoi never intended for the console to be released in its final form, but Nintendo pushed it to market to focus resources on the Nintendo 64. However, the Virtual Boy's low development cost, a hallmark of Yokoi's philosophy, meant its commercial failure had minimal impact on Nintendo's overall financial performance.
- Game Boy Pocket (1996): A smaller, lighter, and more energy-efficient redesign of the original Game Boy, which was Yokoi's final project while at Nintendo.
3.5. Game Production and Supervision
Yokoi's influence extended beyond hardware to the production and supervision of many seminal video game titles and franchises:
- Donkey Kong (1981): President Yamauchi appointed Yokoi to supervise the development of this arcade game, created by a then-novice Shigeru Miyamoto. Yokoi mentored Miyamoto, explaining the intricacies of game design, and played a crucial role in getting Miyamoto's ideas approved by the president. This collaboration significantly influenced Miyamoto's future "in-company creative" approach.
- Mario Bros. (1983): Yokoi continued to work with Miyamoto on the next Mario game. He proposed the multiplayer concept and convinced Miyamoto to give Mario superhuman abilities, such as the ability to jump from great heights unharmed.
- Metroid (1986): Yokoi served as producer for the original Metroid and its sequels, including Metroid II: Return of Samus (1991) and Super Metroid (1994).
- Kid Icarus (1986): He also produced Kid Icarus and Kid Icarus: Of Myths and Monsters (1991).
- Fire Emblem series (1990 onwards): Yokoi was a producer for several early titles in the acclaimed Fire Emblem tactical role-playing series, including Shadow Dragon and the Blade of Light, Fire Emblem Gaiden (1992), Fire Emblem: Mystery of the Emblem (1994), and Fire Emblem: Genealogy of the Holy War (1996).
- Other notable games he produced include Donkey Kong Jr. (1982), Donkey Kong 3 (1983), Duck Hunt (1984), Hogan's Alley (1984), Urban Champion (1984), Balloon Fight (1985), Wrecking Crew (1985), Stack-Up (1985), Gyromite (1985), Gumshoe (1986), Nakayama Miho no Tokimeki High School (1987), Famicom Detective Club: The Missing Heir (1988), Famicom Detective Club: The Girl Who Stands Behind (1989), Tetris (1989), Super Mario Land (1989), Solar Striker (1990), Dr. Mario (1990), Balloon Kid (1990), X (1992), Mario Paint (1992), Super Mario Land 2: 6 Golden Coins (1992), Battle Clash (1992), Yoshi's Cookie (1992), Metal Combat: Falcon's Revenge (1993), Wario Land: Super Mario Land 3 (1994), Mario's Tennis (1995), Mario Clash (1995), Panel de Pon (1995), Virtual Boy Wario Land (1995), Kirby's Block Ball (1995), 3D Tetris (1996), and Pokémon Red and Green (1996).
3.6. Influence and Mentoring within Nintendo
Yokoi's impact extended to shaping Nintendo's creative culture and product development through his mentorship and philosophies. He profoundly influenced subsequent generations of Nintendo developers, most notably Shigeru Miyamoto. At the beginning of Miyamoto's career, Yokoi explained many intricacies of game design, and it was Yokoi who brought Miyamoto's game ideas, such as Donkey Kong, to President Yamauchi's attention for approval. This approach of utilizing talent across different departments significantly influenced Miyamoto's later concept of "in-company creative" development.
Yokoi's belief in equal standing for all employees, regardless of position or department, fostered a collaborative environment. His "Yokoi-ism" philosophy, emphasizing communication and user experience, deeply influenced Nintendo's game development policies, including Miyamoto's focus on creating "games for everyone."
4. Post-Nintendo Activities
Gunpei Yokoi left Nintendo on August 15, 1996, after 31 years with the company. His departure followed the industry presentation of the Nintendo 64 in Tokyo. While media reports often linked his resignation to the commercial failure of the Virtual Boy, Yokoi himself denied this, stating that he had always intended to retire around age 50 to pursue his own interests. To counter the media narrative, he wrote an article titled "Why I Left Nintendo" for the November 1996 issue of Bungei Shunju. His successor as head of R&D1 was Takehiro Izushi.
After leaving Nintendo, Yokoi established his own company, Koto Co., Ltd., taking several of his subordinates with him. At Koto, he planned and developed various portable games and toys, including Kunekunecho (1997) and Henoheno (1997), a precursor to Gunpey. He also served as an advisor for the development of the Bandai WonderSwan handheld game console. The puzzle game Gunpey, released for the WonderSwan in 1999, was supervised by Yokoi and became a significant hit for the platform. Throughout his time at Koto, and even during his later years at Nintendo, Yokoi frequently visited software development companies and business partners to negotiate and coordinate projects, including major titles like Mother 2 and Pokémon Red and Green.
5. Design Philosophy and Thought
Gunpei Yokoi's approach to product creation was guided by distinct and influential philosophies, most notably "Lateral Thinking with Withered Technology" and "Yokoi-ism."
His core philosophy, 枯れた技術の水平思考Kareta Gijutsu no Suihei ShikōJapanese, translated as "Lateral Thinking with Withered Technology" or "Lateral Thinking with Seasoned Technology," was articulated in his book Yokoi Gunpei Game House.
- "Withered Technology" refers to mature, widely used technology that is inexpensive and well-understood. It is technology whose advantages and disadvantages are already clear.
- "Lateral Thinking" (a term coined by Edward de Bono) means finding radical, unconventional new ways to use existing technology, rather than being constrained by conventional concepts.
The essence of this philosophy was to create entirely new products by applying existing technology in innovative ways, thereby keeping development costs low. Yokoi believed that toys and games did not necessarily require cutting-edge technology; instead, novelty and fun gameplay were paramount. He argued that expensive, high-tech solutions could actually hinder the development of truly new and engaging products.
Examples of this philosophy in practice include:
- The Game & Watch series: Developed when liquid crystal displays and semiconductors were abundant and cheap due to fierce competition in the digital calculator market between companies like Sharp and Casio. Yokoi's "lateral thinking" was to find an original and entertaining use for this readily available and affordable technology.
- The Light Ray Gun SP Series: This toy utilized solar cells not as power sources, but as light sensors, and used simple light bulbs as emitters, demonstrating the creative repurposing of "withered" components.
- The NES and Game Boy: These consoles were also developed under a similar philosophy. For the Game Boy, Yokoi famously refused to adopt a color display, prioritizing long battery life and affordability, which proved crucial to its success against more technologically advanced competitors like the Sega Game Gear and Atari Lynx. Yokoi believed that the "low-tech" approach was key, stating that "high-tech is not necessary. Rather, expensive high-tech hinders product development."
Yokoi's philosophy also extended to his "Yokoi-ism," which emphasized communication and user experience:
- The Love Tester was designed not just as a toy to measure affection, but to provide a playful excuse for boys and girls to hold hands.
- Computer Mahjong Yakuman featured a two-player connection, reflecting Yokoi's belief that games should enable human interaction.
- The Game Boy included a communication port, even though its immediate utility wasn't clear at launch. Yokoi's hopeful foresight that "if it doesn't cost much, maybe something interesting can be done with it" led to its later crucial role in games like competitive Tetris and the communication-centric gameplay of Pokémon, which made player-to-player communication a central factor in handheld gaming.
- The D-pad was designed to provide tactile feedback, allowing players to know which direction they were pressing without looking at their hands.
- In the mid-1990s, Yokoi criticized the increasing focus on CPU and color capabilities in home consoles, stating that "home consoles lack ideas. The escape route for lack of ideas is CPU competition and color competition." His words proved prescient, as the Japanese market slowed down after the CPU competition subsided in the late 1990s, and the emphasis on graphics and rising development costs became significant issues in the 2000s.
After Yokoi's departure, the Nintendo 64, which relied on advanced 3D technology and moved away from Yokoi's low-cost philosophy, struggled in the Japanese market due to difficulties in game development and a limited software library. Meanwhile, the Game Boy experienced a resurgence with the massive success of Pokémon, reaffirming its role as a communication tool.
In the 2000s, Nintendo, learning from the N64's struggles, explicitly declared a "break from numbers-ism and specs-ism" with the release of the Nintendo GameCube. The company then fully returned to the "Lateral Thinking with Withered Technology" and "low-tech" approaches. This was evident in the highly successful Nintendo DS (2004), which featured a touch panel and differentiated itself from the more powerful PlayStation Portable by focusing on new ways to play, and the Wii (2006), which prioritized miniaturization, low power consumption, and innovative motion controls over raw computational power, successfully expanding the audience for video games. Satoru Iwata, Nintendo's CEO from 2002 to 2015, affirmed that this philosophy was passed down to Yokoi's disciples, such as Miyamoto, and continued to manifest in Nintendo's product development.
6. Personal Anecdotes and Other Aspects
Gunpei Yokoi was known for his hands-on approach and unique character:
- During his time as Nintendo's Development Department Manager, he was involved in the design of console housings and packaging. This was partly to reduce design costs and partly to maintain relationships with partner companies responsible for printing and manufacturing. His designs prioritized usability and safety, often drawing inspiration from traditional Japanese crafts like makie lacquerware to incorporate unique elements. Yokoi was involved in the design of products from the original Game Boy to the Nintendo 64.
- Despite his dislike for computers, he would take prototype units of the original Game Boy and Virtual Boy home to personally disassemble, adjust, and test them.
- Upon receiving a letter from a mother whose son, a boy with a disability, needed a Game Boy with the D-pad and A/B buttons reversed, Yokoi personally modified a unit. He told the mother that such a modification was simple for someone with mechanical knowledge and presented the customized Game Boy to the boy free of charge, asking her to keep it a "company secret."
- In another instance, when a third-grade boy's Game Boy was destroyed in a traffic accident, his mother sent the heavily damaged console to Nintendo for repair. Upon learning the circumstances, Nintendo sent the boy a new Game Boy free of charge, along with a personal note from Yokoi that read, "O O-kun, please be careful with cars."
- To help his software development team understand the importance of real-world experiences and sensations in game creation, Yokoi once played a tennis match against Shigeru Miyamoto on the rooftop tennis court of Nintendo's then-headquarters in Kyoto. Yokoi reportedly won the match decisively.
- During his tenure as Development Department Manager, he once helped clean the apartment of two software development employees who lived on the first floor of an apartment building along the Toba Kaido road.
- The development of the Virtual Boy caused him significant personal struggle and anguish, leading to a period of insomnia.
- The famous photograph of Gunpei Yokoi holding a silver Game Boy Pocket was taken on his last day at Nintendo's Tokyo branch office.
- Throughout his career at Nintendo and later as president of Koto, he frequently visited software development companies and business partners to negotiate and coordinate projects, including major titles like Mother 2 and Pokémon Red and Green.
7. Death
On October 4, 1997, Gunpei Yokoi was involved in a fatal traffic accident. He was a passenger in a car driven by his associate, Etsuo Kiso, on the Hokuriku Expressway in Komatsu, Ishikawa, Japan. The vehicle rear-ended a light truck. After both men exited the car to inspect the damage, Yokoi was struck and severely injured by a passing car driven by Gen Tsushima, a member of the tourism industry. Yokoi's death was confirmed two hours later at Komatsu Citizens' Hospital due to traumatic shock. Kiso sustained only a fractured rib.
8. Legacy and Evaluation
Gunpei Yokoi's legacy is profound and enduring, extending far beyond his lifetime.
- In 2003, he was posthumously honored with the International Game Developers Association's Lifetime Achievement Award, recognizing his immense contributions to the video game industry.
- He has been featured on lists such as GameTrailers' "Top Ten Game Creators."
- His life and philosophy have been chronicled in several biographical works. A prominent biography from 2010 is titled Father of Games - Gunpei Yokoi, the Man Who Created Nintendo's DNA. Other notable books include Yokoi Gunpei Game House (1997), and Gunpei Yokoi: The Life & Philosophy of Nintendo's God of Toys (2014).
- In 2010, an art exhibit titled "The Man Who Was Called the God of Games" was held in Japan, showcasing his key works from Nintendo.
- As a tribute to their original creator, Bandai began releasing a series of handheld puzzle games named Gunpey in 1999.
Yokoi's "Lateral Thinking with Withered Technology" philosophy continues to be a foundational principle for Nintendo's product development, even after his passing. The immense success of later Nintendo consoles like the Nintendo DS and Wii is often cited as a direct continuation of Yokoi's design principles. These consoles, rather than competing on raw graphical power with their rivals like the PlayStation Portable, Xbox 360, and PlayStation 3, focused on innovative gameplay experiences through features like touchscreens and motion controls, demonstrating Nintendo's enduring belief that technological advancement is not solely about graphical fidelity but about creating new ways to play and expanding the audience for video games.
9. Major Works
Gunpei Yokoi's extensive career at Nintendo and later at Koto resulted in a wide array of influential toys, hardware, and video games.
9.1. Toys and Hardware
- Drive Game (1966)
- Ultra Hand (1966)
- Ultra Machine (1968)
- Love Tester (1969)
- Light Ray Gun SP Series (1970)
- Eleconga (1970)
- N&B Block Crater (1970)
- Ultra Scope (1971)
- Light Ray Telephone LT (1971)
- Lefty RX (1972)
- Time Shock (1972)
- Laser Clay Shooting System (1973)
- Wild Gunman (1974, Arcade Toy)
- Shooting Trainer (1974, Arcade)
- Fascination (1974, Arcade)
- Light Ray Gun Custom Series (1976)
- Battle Shark (1977, Arcade)
- Sky Hawk (1977, Arcade)
- Sea Hawk (1977, Arcade)
- Duck Hunt (1977, Toy)
- Deadline (1978, Arcade)
- Fancy Ball (1978, Arcade)
- Chiritory (Radio Controlled Cleaner) (1979)
- Ten Billion Barrel (1980)
- Game & Watch (1980, Handheld Game Console)
- Game & Watch Wide Screen (1981, Handheld Game Console)
- Game & Watch Multi Screen (1982, Handheld Game Console)
- Game & Watch Color Screen (1994, Handheld Game Console)
- Computer Mahjong Yakuman (1982)
- Famicom Controller (1983, Housing and D-pad)
- D-pad (1983)
- R.O.B. (1985, Famicom Peripheral)
- Block (1985, Famicom + R.O.B.)
- Gyro (1985, Famicom + R.O.B.)
- NES Zapper (1985)
- Game Boy (1989, Handheld Game Console)
- Super Scope (1992)
- Virtual Boy (1995, Game Console)
- Game Boy Pocket (1996, Handheld Game Console)
- Kunekunecho (1997, Handheld Game Console, Koto)
- Henoheno (1997, Handheld Game Console, Koto)
- WonderSwan (1999, Handheld Game Console, released posthumously)
- Gunpey (1999, WonderSwan, released posthumously)
9.2. Video Games (Designer/Producer)
- Donkey Kong (1981) - Producer
- Donkey Kong Jr. (1982) - Producer
- Computer Mahjong Yakuman (1982)
- Mario Bros. (1983) - Producer
- Donkey Kong 3 (1983) - Producer
- Wild Gunman (1984) - Producer
- Duck Hunt (1984) - Producer
- Hogan's Alley (1984) - Producer
- Urban Champion (1984) - Producer
- Wrecking Crew (1984) - Producer
- Balloon Fight (1984) - Producer
- Stack-Up (1985) - Producer
- Gyromite (1985) - Producer
- Metroid (1986) - Producer
- Kid Icarus (1986) - Producer
- Gumshoe (1987) - Producer
- Nakayama Miho no Tokimeki High School (1987) - Producer
- Famicom Detective Club: The Missing Heir (1988) - Producer
- Famicom Wars (1988) - Producer
- Famicom Detective Club Part II: Ushiro ni Tatsu Shōjo (1989) - Producer
- Tetris (1989) - Producer
- Super Mario Land (1989) - Producer
- Solar Striker (1990) - Producer
- Fire Emblem: Shadow Dragon and the Blade of Light (1990) - Producer
- Dr. Mario (1990) - Producer
- Balloon Kid (1990) - Producer
- Yoshi's Egg (1991) - Producer
- Metroid II: Return of Samus (1991) - Producer
- Kid Icarus: Of Myths and Monsters (1991) - Producer
- Fire Emblem Gaiden (1992) - Producer
- X (1992) - Producer
- Mario Paint (1992) - Producer
- Super Mario Land 2: 6 Golden Coins (1992) - Producer
- Yoshi's Cookie (1992) - Producer
- Battle Clash (1992) - Producer
- Super Scope 6 (1993)
- Space Bazooka (1993) - Producer
- Yoshi's Safari (1993) - Producer
- Mario & Wario (1993) - Producer
- Metal Combat: Falcon's Revenge (1993) - Producer
- Wario Land: Super Mario Land 3 (1994) - Producer
- Fire Emblem: Mystery of the Emblem (1994) - Producer
- Tetris Flash (1994)
- Super Metroid (1994) - General Manager
- Snoopy Concert (1995) - Special Thanks
- Mario's Tennis (1995) - Producer
- Galactic Pinball (1995) - General Manager
- Teleroboxer (1995) - General Manager
- Mario Clash (1995) - Producer
- Panel de Pon (1995) - Producer
- Virtual Boy Wario Land (1995) - Producer
- Kirby's Block Ball (1995) - Producer (co-produced with Shigeru Miyamoto)
- 3D Tetris (1996) - Producer
- Fire Emblem: Genealogy of the Holy War (1996) - Producer
- Pokémon Red and Green (1996)