Fang Xiaoru

1.1. Apprenticeship and Early Scholarly Recognition

In 1376, at the age of 19, Fang Xiaoru began his studies under the esteemed Confucian scholar Song Lian, one of the "Four Great Teachers" of the time. Under Song Lian's tutelage, he delved deeply into Confucianism, history, and literature, quickly distinguishing himself as Song Lian's most talented disciple. However, his formal education was cut short in 1381 when Song Lian became entangled in the Hongwu Emperor's extensive purges of meritorious officials and subsequently died in exile.

1.2. Early Career and Professorship

Despite the setback of his teacher's demise, Fang Xiaoru's scholarly reputation continued to grow. In 1392, he was recommended for an official position, but his emphasis on moral governance did not align with the Hongwu Emperor's preference for strict legalistic rule, and his initial appointment was limited to a professorship in Hanzhong Prefecture. During this period, he was invited by Zhu Chun (朱椿_{Zhū Chūn}^Chinese), the Prince Xian of Shu, to serve as a tutor for his son, Zhu Yuelian. The prince was so impressed by Fang Xiaoru that he built a study room for him, naming it "Zhengxue," which became Fang Xiaoru's widely recognized byname, "Zhengxue Xiansheng" (Teacher Zhengxue). It was during this time that he began to compose his significant works, including 周礼辨正_{Zhoulian Bianzheng}^Chinese and the 24-volume 遜志齋集_{Xunzhi Zhai Ji}^Chinese, actively engaging in both scholarship and the education of imperial family members.

2.1. Jianwen's Reforms and Policies

Upon the Hongwu Emperor's death in 1398, Zhu Yunwen ascended the throne as the Jianwen Emperor. Fang Xiaoru was immediately promoted to Academician-in-waiting (侍講學士_{Shìjiǎng Xuéshì}^Chinese) and became a chief advisor to the new emperor. Committed to establishing a political system based on benevolent governance (德治_Dézhì^Chinese), Fang Xiaoru spearheaded national reforms, transitioning from the Hongwu Emperor's stringent rule to a more lenient approach. This shift garnered significant support from the literati class, and he even managed to partially ease the emperor's absolute autocratic power. The Jianwen Emperor, who enjoyed reading, frequently summoned Fang Xiaoru to clarify passages and sought his counsel on all major state affairs. It was mandated that all critical governmental decisions required Fang Xiaoru's direct approval.

A pressing concern for Fang Xiaoru and the Jianwen Emperor was the young emperor's age and precarious power base. In response, Fang Xiaoru presented the "Shenlü Lun" (深慮論_{Shēnlǜ Lùn}^Chinese, "On Deep Consideration"), a treatise advising caution, asserting that "disasters always arise from what is overlooked, and chaos always begins from what is not doubted." The Hongwu Emperor's earlier purges, intended to secure the succession, had inadvertently eliminated many capable officials, leaving the Jianwen Emperor with a diminished support network. Conversely, powerful imperial uncles, particularly Zhu Di, the Prince of Yan, stationed in border regions, had amassed significant military strength and harbored ambitions.

The Nanjing court, after much deliberation, devised a strategy to eliminate these formidable princes one by one by summoning them to the capital. Although the Jianwen Emperor was hesitant to be seen as persecuting his uncles, Fang Xiaoru and other loyal ministers earnestly implored him to proceed. Consequently, spies and assassins were dispatched to the princes' fiefdoms to secretly monitor their activities and movements.

3.1. Refusal to Draft the Usurpation Edict

Following the fall of Nanjing, Zhu Di initiated a ruthless purge of officials loyal to the Jianwen Emperor. However, recognizing Fang Xiaoru's immense academic prestige and authority, Zhu Di initially spared him, imprisoning him after he was found mourning the Jianwen Emperor outside the palace gates. Zhu Di treated Fang Xiaoru with a degree of respect, hoping to persuade the esteemed scholar to draft his inaugural edict, thereby legitimizing his usurpation and securing the support of the literati. Zhu Di even sent Fang Xiaoru's former students, Liao Yong and Liao Ming, to persuade him in prison, but Fang Xiaoru rebuffed them, questioning if they still did not understand the principles of right and wrong.

Fang Xiaoru, along with Jing Qing, had resolved to remain loyal to the Jianwen Emperor. Jing Qing attempted to assassinate Zhu Di, but was discovered and executed with his family. Despite this, Zhu Di continued his efforts to win over Fang Xiaoru. When Fang Xiaoru was brought before Zhu Di, he appeared in mourning clothes, a clear sign of his defiance. Zhu Di attempted to reason with him, speaking gently and comparing his actions to those of the Duke of Zhou, who had assisted his young nephew, King Cheng of Zhou, in ancient China. The exchange that followed highlighted Fang Xiaoru's unwavering loyalty:

• Zhu Di: "I am merely following the Duke of Zhou in assisting King Cheng."
• Fang Xiaoru: "Where is King Cheng now?" (referring to the Jianwen Emperor)
• Zhu Di: "He burned himself to death."
• Fang Xiaoru: "Why not enthrone King Cheng's son?"
• Zhu Di: "The country needs a mature ruler."
• Fang Xiaoru: "Why not enthrone King Cheng's brother?"
• Zhu Di: "This is my family matter; you don't need to worry."

Finally, Zhu Di presented Fang Xiaoru with writing implements, earnestly requesting him to draft the imperial edict for his ascension. Fang Xiaoru, however, threw his pen to the ground, weeping and cursing, declaring, "Death is death, but the edict cannot be written!" According to some accounts, Fang Xiaoru then seized the pen and wrote the four characters "燕賊篡位" (燕賊篡位_{Yānzéi Cuànwèi}^Chinese, "The Bandit of Yan usurped the throne") on the paper.

4.1. The 'Ten Familial Exterminations' Punishment

Zhu Di, unable to quell his rage even after the execution of Fang Xiaoru's "nine familial exterminations" (九族_Jiǔzú^Chinese - traditionally encompassing four generations of the paternal clan, three of the maternal clan, and two of the wife's clan), went a step further. When threatened with the extermination of his nine kin, Fang Xiaoru defiantly retorted, "I would be fine with ten!" In an unprecedented act of cruelty, Zhu Di declared Fang Xiaoru's friends, disciples, and all those with whom he had close ties as the "tenth kinship." These individuals were also rounded up and executed. In total, 873 people were executed by association, and countless others were exiled, many perishing in remote regions. This exceptionally severe punishment became known as "Zhulian Shizu" (誅連十族_{Zhūlián Shízú}^Chinese, "extermination of ten familial groups"). Fang Xiaoru was forced to witness all these brutal executions before he himself was led to his death.

4.2. Final Moments and Death Poem

Fang Xiaoru was finally executed outside Jubao Gate (聚寶門_{Jùbǎo Mén}^Chinese) in Nanjing. In his final moments, he composed a poignant death poem, "Jue Ming Shi" (絕命詞_{Juémìng Cí}^Chinese), which encapsulated his unwavering principles and tragic fate:

"Heaven sends chaos, who knows why?
The three bonds are displaced, the four virtues uncultivated.
Kin kill each other, closest relatives become enemies.
Treacherous officials scheme, using tricks to manipulate the state.
Loyal ministers erupt in fury, blood and tears flow together.
To die for my lord thus, what more could I ask?
Alas, how sorrowful! May I not be blamed for this."

5.1. Confucian Thought and Scholarly Style

Fang Xiaoru's Confucian philosophy was deeply rooted in the Zhu Xi school of thought, particularly the Jinhua school, which emphasized practical application of moral principles. He believed his primary mission was to "brighten the kingly way and achieve great peace" (明王道、致太平_{míng wángdào, zhì tàipíng}^Chinese). His scholarly style was characterized by its clarity, lucidity, and strong emphasis on moral rectitude. He advocated for a benevolent governance that would bring stability and prosperity to the realm, contrasting with the more legalistic and authoritarian tendencies of the early Ming dynasty.

6.1. Later Veneration and Influence

In later dynasties, particularly during the late Ming and Qing periods, Fang Xiaoru was widely revered as a supreme example of loyalty and moral fortitude. The Southern Ming Hongguang Emperor posthumously bestowed upon him the honorific title "Wenzheng" (文正_Wénzhèng^Chinese), a highly esteemed posthumous name for a scholar-official. His story has profoundly influenced subsequent Confucian scholarship, serving as a powerful testament to the ideal of loyalty to one's sovereign and principles. In Korea, Fang Xiaoru is often compared to the Sayuksin (Six Martyred Ministers) of the Joseon dynasty, who were executed for their loyalty to the deposed Danjong of Joseon. King Sukjong of Joseon explicitly drew this parallel when honoring the Sayuksin. In some folk traditions, particularly among the Min Nan people of Fujian, Fang Xiaoru is even revered as a deity, known as Sanfu Qiansui (三府千岁_{Sānfǔ Qiānsùi}^Chinese, "three houses, a thousand years") or Sanwang (三王_Sānwáng^Chinese, "three kings"), alongside Tie Xuan and Jing Qing, as part of Wang Ye worship (王爷神_{Wángyé shén}^Chinese), symbolizing steadfast loyalty.

However, Fang Xiaoru's actions have also drawn criticism. Some historians and commentators have pointed to his unyielding rigidity, arguing that his uncompromising stance ultimately led to the horrific extermination of his extended family and numerous associates. Modern scholars, such as the Russian-Korean professor Park No-ja, have critically analyzed Fang Xiaoru's moral absolutism, suggesting that his adherence to Neo-Confucian ideals, while principled, might be seen as a form of "name-ism" or justification for the ruling class, with little practical relevance to the common people, such as peasants concerned primarily with taxation.