Emperor Tenmu

4.2.1. Imperial Rule and Centralization

Emperor Tenmu established a highly centralized form of imperial rule. He did not appoint a `Daijin` (大臣, Minister) during his reign, instead directly overseeing state affairs, including judicial and military matters. This decision effectively concentrated power solely in the hands of the Emperor, a rare instance of such direct imperial control in Japanese history.

A distinctive feature of his administration was the practice of `kōshin seiji` (皇親政治_{kōshin seiji}^Japanese, "imperial family politics"), where members of the imperial family were appointed to key government positions. While these imperial princes held important roles, the ultimate authority remained with the Emperor himself, who was not constrained by their counsel. This concentration of power, coupled with his strong charisma, elevated the imperial institution to an unprecedented level of autocracy in ancient Japan. However, this autocratic rule had its limitations; unlike in China, there was no widespread promotion of commoners to high office, and even meritorious figures from the Jinshin War who were of regional origin remained subordinate to the traditional aristocracy. This suggests that even at its peak, imperial autocracy in Japan operated within the constraints of a deeply entrenched aristocratic system. Emperor Tenmu also deliberately limited the promotion of officials to higher ranks (above `Daikin-ge` or `Jikikō-ni`) to prevent the emergence of powerful vassals who could challenge his authority. Instead, he focused on promoting lower-ranking officials to stabilize his regime with loyal bureaucrats.

4.2.2. Kabane Reform and Eight-Ranked Titles

Emperor Tenmu undertook a significant restructuring of the `kabane` (姓_kabane^Japanese), the hereditary title system that defined the social rank and duties of clans. This reform aimed to integrate powerful clans into the imperial administrative order and solidify state control.

In 684, he established the `Yakusa no Kabane` (八色の姓_{Yakusa no Kabane}^Japanese, "Eight-Ranked Titles"), a comprehensive reorganization of the existing clan structure. This new hierarchy reclassified clans based on their proximity to the imperial bloodline and their loyalty to Tenmu, particularly acknowledging those who had supported him during the Jinshin War. The highest rank, `Mahito` (真人), was reserved for descendants of the imperial family. Traditional powerful clan titles like `Omi` (臣) and `Muraji` (連), which were formerly the highest `kabane`, were devalued in this new system. `Omi` clans were reclassified as `Ason` (朝臣), and `Muraji` clans as `Sukune` (宿禰). The other ranks included `Imiki` (忌寸), `Michinoshi` (道師), `Omi` (臣), `Muraji` (連), and `Inagi` (稲置). This reform effectively integrated the aristocracy into the state bureaucracy, ensuring that their status was derived from and dependent on imperial favor, rather than solely on their traditional hereditary power.

4.2.3. Ritsuryō System and Legal Codes

A monumental undertaking of Emperor Tenmu's reign was the initiation of the `Ritsuryō` (律令) legal system. On February 25, 681, he issued an imperial edict to begin the compilation of `Ritsuryō` codes and to reform existing legal practices. This ambitious project involved numerous officials working collaboratively.

However, the compilation was not completed during Tenmu's lifetime. It was eventually finished and promulgated as the `Asuka Kiyomihara Decree` (飛鳥浄御原令_{Asuka Kiyomihara-ryō}^Japanese) by Empress Jitō on June 29, 689, three years after Tenmu's death. While the precise contents of the `Asuka Kiyomihara-ryō` are not fully known, it is understood to have laid the fundamental groundwork for the later, more comprehensive `Taihō Code` (701) and `Yōrō Code` (718). The `Asuka Kiyomihara-ryō` established the basic framework for the `Ritsuryō` official system, including administrative structures, legal principles, and civil service regulations. Scholars widely acknowledge that the core principles and practical significance of the `Ritsuryō` system were largely established under Tenmu's reign, marking a crucial step towards a centralized bureaucratic state in Japan.

4.3.1. Currency and Taxation

The first Japanese currency, `Fuhonsen` (富本銭_Fuhonsen^Japanese), is believed to have been minted during Emperor Tenmu's reign. These copper and antimony coins, found at the Asukaike (飛鳥池) site, date to the late 7th century. While some theories suggest `Fuhonsen` were primarily for magical purposes rather than circulation, or that earlier un-inscribed silver coins (`Mumon-ginsen`) existed, modern archaeological findings and scholarly interpretations increasingly support `Fuhonsen` as an early form of circulating currency. The `Haedong Jegukgi` (海東諸國紀^Korean) notes that in 683 (Tenmu 12th year), carts were first made, and copper coins were introduced to replace silver coins.

Regarding taxation, Tenmu reformed the system of `fuko` (封戸_fuko^Japanese, stipend households), which provided income to imperial family members, nobles, and temples. He sought to prevent the formation of strong local ties between `fuko` recipients and the households by relocating the tax sources of `fuko` from western provinces to eastern provinces in 676. In 679, he granted `fuko` to imperial family members and ministers of `Shōkin` rank and above, completing the transition to the new system. He also ordered investigations into temple `fuko` in 679 and limited their tenure to 30 years in 680. Although an edict in 682 ordered the return of `fuko` to the state, the system continued, suggesting a reform in its management rather than outright abolition.

4.3.2. Land and Labor Policies

Emperor Tenmu actively sought to dismantle the private control of land and people by powerful clans and religious institutions, asserting the state's direct authority. In 675, he issued an edict to reclaim `be` (部曲, private land and people) that had been recognized since Emperor Tenji's reign (664), as well as private mountains, swamps, islands, forests, and ponds owned by imperial family members, nobles, and temples. This move aimed to centralize control over resources and labor.

His policies aimed to transition from private clan control to a system where compensation was granted to individuals based on their official rank, position, or merit. While `fuko` existed before Tenmu, his reign saw a significant shift in their implementation to sever the master-servant relationships that developed when `fuko` were tied to specific locations for extended periods.

Furthermore, in 676, when faced with famine and requests from `Shimotsuke Province` officials to allow the sale of children due to crop failure, the court refused, demonstrating a policy aimed at protecting the populace and preventing the exploitation of labor, even during times of hardship.

4.3.3. Animal Protection Laws

On April 17, 675, Emperor Tenmu issued the first "meat consumption ban" (肉食禁止令). This decree prohibited the consumption of meat from domesticated animals such as cattle, horses, dogs, monkeys, and chickens, specifically during the period from April 1 to September 30 each year. This ban was not a complete prohibition of meat consumption, as it was limited to certain animals and a specific season (corresponding to the rice-growing period). It also did not prohibit the hunting and consumption of wild animals like deer and boar, which were considered agricultural pests.

The primary purpose of this law was to promote agriculture and protect useful livestock, particularly cattle and horses, which were essential for farming. By restricting the consumption of these animals during the crucial farming season, Tenmu aimed to ensure stable tax revenues based on rice cultivation. This policy, along with similar decrees in later periods, gradually contributed to the cultural perception of meat consumption as impure or defiling in Japan, especially in relation to rice cultivation.

4.6.1. Shinto and State Shinto

Emperor Tenmu placed great emphasis on traditional Japanese kami worship, elevating some local rituals to national importance. While not rejecting foreign cultures, his efforts were distinct in their focus on systematizing indigenous beliefs and integrating local deities into a framework centered around the imperial family's ancestor goddess, Amaterasu Ōmikami. This process led to the formation of an ancient State Shinto, where local shrines and rituals, in exchange for imperial protection, came under state control.

He particularly emphasized the Ise Grand Shrine, dedicated to Amaterasu, establishing its preeminent position as the highest shrine in Japan. During the Jinshin War, Prince Ōama had performed a distant worship of Amaterasu by bowing towards the Ise Grand Shrine from the banks of the `Ota River` in Ise. After his enthronement, he sent his daughter, Princess Ōku, to serve as the first `Saiō` (斎王), an unmarried imperial princess who served as high priestess at Ise. In 675, his daughters Princess Tōchi and Princess Abe (later Empress Genmei) also visited the shrine. The `Shikinen Sengū` (式年遷宮), the system of rebuilding the Ise Grand Shrine every 20 years, is believed to have been initiated by Tenmu, either in 685 or 688. Some scholars also theorize that Tenmu was instrumental in establishing Amaterasu Ōmikami as the central imperial deity, possibly by merging local sun worship with the imperial ancestral cult, and that he relocated the Ise Grand Shrine to its current location along the Isuzu River.

Other Shinto practices promoted by Tenmu include sending Prince Osakabe to `Isonokami Shrine` in 674 to polish its sacred treasures. In 675, he dispatched officials to worship the wind god at `Tatsuta Shrine` and the great `Imikami` at `Hirose Shrine`, establishing a tradition of imperial envoys to these shrines. The annual `Kinensai` (祈年祭), a harvest prayer festival, is also believed by some to have originated during his reign.

4.6.2. Buddhism Promotion

Emperor Tenmu was a fervent patron of Buddhism, a faith he had personally embraced by becoming a monk before his enthronement. His promotion of Buddhism was often intertwined with state protection (`Gokoku Bukkyō`, 護国仏教).

In 673, he initiated a massive project to transcribe the entire Buddhist canon (`Issai-kyō`) at `Kawara-dera` (川原寺). In 676, he dispatched envoys nationwide to preach the `Konkōmyō-kyō` (金光明経, Golden Light Sutra) and `Ninnō-kyō` (仁王経, Benevolent Kings Sutra), and in 679, he ordered the preaching of the `Konkōmyō-kyō` in 24 temples in Yamato-kyō and within the palace. The `Konkōmyō-kyō` asserts that the monarch is a child of heaven, protected by deities, and thus justified in ruling the populace, aligning with the concept of the Emperor as a living god (`arahitogami`) descended from Amaterasu Ōmikami. These initiatives were primarily aimed at state protection rather than individual salvation.

He also supported temple construction. In 673, he appointed officials to oversee the relocation of `Baekje-ō-dera` (百済大寺), founded by Emperor Jomei, to `Takachi` (高市), renaming it `Takachi-ō-dera` (高市大寺). In 680, he prayed for his Empress's recovery by commissioning the construction of `Yakushi-ji` (薬師寺). He also sought Buddhist prayers for his own illness. In 685, he issued an edict encouraging every household to build a `butsudan` (仏舎, Buddhist altar) for worship and offerings, signifying a broader dissemination of Buddhist practice among the populace. This period saw a proliferation of `ujidera` (氏寺, clan temples) throughout the country, suggesting significant state support.

However, Tenmu's patronage came with strict state control. He aimed to subordinate Buddhism to the state, requiring monks and nuns to focus on prayers for the Emperor and the nation. In 675, he reclaimed mountains and ponds granted to temples, and in 679, he revised `fuko` for temples, asserting state control over their income. He revived the `Sōgō` (僧綱) system, re-establishing `Sōjō` (僧正, Director-General of Monks) and `Sōzu` (僧都, Supervisor of Monks) to oversee monastic affairs. His administration also regulated monastic conduct and attire, placing all temples and clergy under strict state supervision. Some historians argue that Tenmu's understanding of Buddhism was superficial, focused on worldly benefits and state protection rather than individual enlightenment or the core tenets of self-negation and altruism.

4.6.3. Influence of Taoism

Taoist elements were notably prominent in Emperor Tenmu's religious worldview. The concept of the Emperor as a divine being, as expressed in poems like "Our Sovereign, a god," is sometimes interpreted as referring to a Taoist deity, a higher being than a mere immortal. The highest rank in the `Yakusa no Kabane` system was `Mahito` (真人), a term for a high-ranking immortal in Taoism. Tenmu's own Japanese-style posthumous name, `Amanonunahara-Oki-no-Mahito-no-Sumeramikoto`, translates to "True Person of the Clear Sky and the Ocean Isle," with `Oki` referencing `Yíngzhōu`, a Taoist mythical island. This suggests that Tenmu saw himself as a supreme Taoist deity.

His expertise in `Tenmon Tonkō` (天文遁甲, astronomy and divination), as noted in the `Nihon Shoki`, was a Taoist skill. The octagonal shape of his tomb (`Hakkaku-fun`, 八角墳) is also interpreted as reflecting Taoist cosmology, representing the `Hakko` (八紘, eight directions) including the cardinal and intercardinal points. This interest in Taoism was not unique to Tenmu, being evident in his mother Empress Saimei's reign and continuing after his death. Japanese Taoism, however, was not an independent religion but was deeply integrated with Shinto, making it challenging to precisely assess the extent of its influence.

4.7.1. Historical Compilation (Nihon Shoki, Kojiki)

Emperor Tenmu initiated monumental historical projects that laid the foundation for Japanese historiography. On March 17, 681, he issued an imperial edict commanding imperial princes and numerous ministers to compile "Imperial Chronicles and Ancient Matters" (`Teiki` and `Jōko Shōji`). This marked the beginning of the `Nihon Shoki` (日本書紀_{Nihon Shoki}^Japanese) ("Chronicles of Japan") compilation project.

Concurrently, he instructed Hieda no Are to memorize and recite the "Chronicles of Emperors" (`Teiō Hitsugi`) and "Old Narratives" (`Sendai Kyūji`), which contained imperial genealogies and ancient legends. These oral traditions were later transcribed by Ō no Yasumaro to become the `Kojiki` (古事記_Kojiki^Japanese) ("Record of Ancient Matters"), completed in 712. Both `Nihon Shoki` and `Kojiki` were completed after Tenmu's death and are the oldest extant historical texts in Japan. While the exact intent behind commissioning two parallel historical works is debated, both served to legitimize imperial rule. `Nihon Shoki`, written in classical Chinese, is a lengthy work that often presents multiple versions of events, suggesting a collaborative compilation. In contrast, `Kojiki`, written in a more consistent style, is thought to reflect Tenmu's personal will to a greater extent.

4.7.2. Literature and Arts (Man'yōshū)

Emperor Tenmu had a deep appreciation for poetry and performing arts. His personal interest in `waka` (和歌, Japanese poetry) is evident in poems attributed to him in the `Man'yōshū` (万葉集_Man'yōshū^Japanese) ("Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves"). These include love poems exchanged with Princess Nukata at Gamo-no-no, playful verses with Fujiwara no Hikami-no-iratsume, and melancholic poems about the solitude of Yoshino.

• One famous poem attributed to him is:

Our Sovereign, a god,
: Has made his Imperial City
:Out of the stretch of swamps,
:Where chestnut horses sank
:To their bellies.
This poem, found in the Man'yōshū, describes the establishment of his capital at Asuka Kiyomihara, transforming a marshy area into a grand city.

• Another poem, exchanged with Princess Nukata at Gamo-no-no during a hunting trip with Emperor Tenji, reflects a complex relationship:

`Murasaki no nihoeru imo wo niku karaba / Hitotsuma yue ni a kōime yamo`
(If I hated my beloved, who shines like purple, / Would I still long for her, even though she is another's wife?)

• Two other poems express a somber mood during his retreat to Yoshino:

`Miyoshino no Mimiga no mine ni / Toki naku zo yuki wa furikeru / Hima naku zo ame wa furikeru / Sono yuki no toki naki ga goto / Sono ame no hima naki ga goto / Kumamo ochizu / Omoitsutsu zo koshi / Sono yamamichi wo`
(On the Mimiga Peak of fair Yoshino, / Snow falls ceaselessly, / Rain falls without pause. / Like the ceaseless snow, / Like the endless rain, / Without a moment's rest, / I came, thinking of you, / Along this mountain path.)

`Yoki hito no Yoshi to yoku mite yoshi to iishi / Yoshino yoku miyo yoki hito yoku mitsu`
(The good person, seeing Yoshino well and saying "good," / See Yoshino well, the good person saw it well.)
These poems are often interpreted as reflecting his somber mood during his retreat to Yoshino when Emperor Tenji was gravely ill.

Tenmu also actively patronized performing artists. In 675, he ordered the gathering of skilled singers, dancers, dwarves, and performers from `Kinai` and its surroundings to the court, rewarding them for their talents. In 685, he commanded that excellent songs and flute playing be passed down to future generations, and in 686, he rewarded actors and singers. He also enjoyed popular pastimes such as `mudan-goto` (riddles) and even hosted a `bakuchi` (gambling) tournament in 674.

4.7.3. Astronomy and Calendar

Emperor Tenmu had a keen interest and expertise in astronomy, as noted in the `Nihon Shoki`. In 675, he established Japan's first astronomical observatory, the `Senseidai` (占星台, Star-Gazing Platform). This initiative reflects his interest in divination and the influence of Taoist practices, which often incorporated astronomical observations. Advancements in calendar systems also occurred during his reign, contributing to more accurate timekeeping and agricultural planning.