1. Overview
Chao Gai is a pivotal fictional character in Water Margin, one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. He is widely recognized as the second leader of the Liangshan outlaw band, succeeding Wang Lun. Known by his primary nickname, "Pagoda-Shifting Heavenly King" (托塔天王Chinese), and also as "Heavenly King Chao" (晁天王Chinese), Chao Gai is depicted as a figure embodying social justice and a spirit of resistance against injustice. Although he dies before the full assembly of the 108 Stars of Destiny, thereby not being counted among them, his leadership was instrumental in unifying the early Liangshan outlaws. Posthumously, he is revered as a spiritual guardian of the band, inspiring their actions and maintaining a significant symbolic presence throughout the narrative.
2. Biography
Chao Gai's life story is one of righteous indignation and the pursuit of justice, leading him from a respected village chief to a formidable leader among the Liangshan outlaws.
2.1. Early Life and Character
Chao Gai was born into a wealthy family in Dongxi Village (東溪村Chinese), located in Yuncheng County, Shandong province. He held the esteemed position of baozheng (保正), a chief responsible for a village of up to 500 households. His formidable strength and righteous character earned him the nickname "Pagoda-Shifting Heavenly King." This moniker originated from an incident where he single-handedly carried a miniature pagoda from the west side of a creek to his village's east side, a feat intended to ward off malevolent spirits that had gathered due to the pagoda's placement in the neighboring Xixi Village. He was also known by the alias "Iron Heavenly King" (鉄天王Chinese).
Chao Gai was characterized by his deep sense of chivalry and righteousness, always extending a helping hand to those in distress and offering aid to the poor. He was well-regarded, cultivating a wide network of friends and acquaintances across the jianghu (rivers and lakes) world, and frequently hosted and supported wandering heroes. Despite his generally amiable nature, he possessed a strict and occasionally quick-tempered disposition, contrasting with the more gentle Song Jiang. He was a man of robust physique, possessing immense physical strength, and was a master of the pudao, a type of Chinese polearm. Chao Gai remained unmarried throughout his life, and at the time of his introduction, he was in his late thirties to early forties. He maintained particularly close friendships with the local chief constables Zhu Tong and Lei Heng.
2.2. Robbing the Birthday Gifts Convoy
The event that solidified Chao Gai's reputation as a daring outlaw was the robbery of the birthday gifts convoy. His friend Liu Tang brought news that a convoy, laden with birthday gifts intended for the corrupt Imperial Tutor Cai Jing of Beijing Daming Prefecture, would pass near Dongxi Village. Recognizing these gifts as ill-gotten gains derived from the exploitation of the populace, Chao Gai resolved to seize them, viewing it as an act of rectifying an injustice.
Liu Tang, on his journey to inform Chao Gai, became intoxicated and fell asleep in a dilapidated temple. He was discovered and arrested by Lei Heng, who mistook him for a fugitive due to his rough appearance. As Lei Heng escorted Liu Tang back to the county office, he decided to take a break at Chao Gai's residence in Dongxi Village, leveraging their existing friendship. Seizing this opportunity, Chao Gai secretly met with Liu Tang, learned the truth of his predicament, and then lied to Lei Heng, claiming Liu Tang was a distant relative. This deception successfully secured Liu Tang's release, though an argument ensued between Liu Tang and Lei Heng, which Chao Gai had to mediate.
With Liu Tang freed, Chao Gai assembled a formidable team known as the "Seven Stars" to carry out the heist: himself, the strategist Wu Yong, the skilled brothers Ruan Xiao Er, Ruan Xiao Wu, and Ruan Xiao Qi, the Taoist priest Gongsun Sheng, and the agile Bai Sheng. Employing Wu Yong's ingenious plan, the group disguised themselves as date traders. They tricked the convoy escorts, led by Yang Zhi, into drinking wine laced with a powerful drug that rendered them unconscious. With the escorts incapacitated, Chao Gai and his associates successfully made off with the valuable birthday gifts.
Following the robbery, the authorities dispatched constable He Tao to track down the culprits. Bai Sheng inadvertently revealed his involvement, leading to his arrest. Despite enduring severe torture, Bai Sheng steadfastly refused to betray his accomplices, even as He Tao's investigations pointed increasingly towards Chao Gai's involvement.
2.3. Joining Liangshan Marsh
As the authorities closed in, Song Jiang, then an official in Yuncheng County and a sworn brother to Chao Gai, secretly warned Chao Gai and his companions, urging them to flee immediately. Concurrently, the local magistrate assigned Zhu Tong and Lei Heng to lead soldiers in arresting Chao Gai's group. However, honoring their friendship with Chao Gai, both chief constables secretly aided his escape, demonstrating their loyalty to him over their official duties.
After a skirmish in which they defeated the pursuing soldiers, Chao Gai and his friends sought refuge at Liangshan Marsh. They intended to join the outlaw band there, but Wang Lun, the then-chief of Liangshan, proved to be narrow-minded and fearful of their superior abilities. Fearing that Chao Gai's leadership qualities would usurp his own position, Wang Lun attempted to dismiss them with gifts and pretexts. Recognizing Wang Lun's pettiness, Wu Yong instigated Lin Chong, who was already disaffected with Wang Lun's restrictive leadership, to assassinate him. Following Wang Lun's death, Lin Chong, along with other Liangshan chieftains like Song Wan, Du Qian, and Zhu Gui, unanimously honored Chao Gai as the new chief of the Liangshan outlaw band.
2.4. Leadership of Liangshan
Under Chao Gai's leadership, Liangshan Marsh solidified its position as a formidable stronghold for outlaws seeking refuge from corrupt imperial rule. Throughout his tenure as chief, Chao Gai primarily focused on strengthening and guarding the Liangshan base. He largely entrusted the conduct of external military campaigns to his trusted lieutenant, Song Jiang, who frequently led the Liangshan forces into battle.
Chao Gai, however, often expressed a desire to personally lead expeditions. For instance, when Song Jiang was arrested in Jiangzhou, Chao Gai took the initiative to lead a force to rescue him. After Song Jiang's successful rescue, Chao Gai humbly offered to cede the leadership position to him, acknowledging Song Jiang's popularity and strategic acumen. However, Song Jiang respectfully declined, affirming Chao Gai's rightful place as chief. Despite his personal inclinations to join the fight, his comrades often dissuaded him, preferring that he remain at the base to ensure its security and provide strategic oversight and reinforcements.
2.5. Expedition to Zeng Family Fortress
Chao Gai's decision to personally lead the expedition against the Zeng Family Fortress marked a departure from his usual leadership strategy and ultimately led to his demise. The Zengs had long harbored a deep hostility towards Liangshan, actively provoking the outlaws through various means. The immediate catalysts for Chao Gai's personal involvement were two specific incidents: the theft of a precious steed, the Jade Lion Horse (玉獅子Chinese), by the Zeng brothers from Duan Jingzhu-a horse that Duan Jingzhu had originally intended to present as a gift to Chao Gai-and the unprovoked ambush and injury of Liu Tang by the Zengs. Furthermore, the Zengs had publicly insulted Liangshan's leaders by posting derogatory slogans around their fortress. Unable to tolerate these repeated provocations and affronts to Liangshan's honor, Chao Gai, against the advice of his subordinates, resolved to personally lead the forces to attack the Zeng Family Fortress and deliver a decisive lesson.
2.6. Death
The expedition to Zeng Family Fortress proved to be fatal for Chao Gai. During a fierce battle against the Zeng forces, he fell victim to a poisoned arrow. The arrow struck him in the forehead, and it was fired by Shi Wengong, the formidable martial arts instructor of the Zeng Family Fortress. Despite managing to return to Liangshan Marsh, the poison was potent, and Chao Gai succumbed to his injury shortly thereafter. Before his death, he uttered his final decree: "Whoever captures Shi Wengong and avenges me shall become the next chief of Liangshan." He even broke the arrow in two as a symbolic oath for this dying wish.
Ultimately, Lu Junyi, a wealthy squire and martial arts expert who later joined Liangshan, was the one who defeated and captured Shi Wengong. However, when Lu Junyi refused the leadership, Song Jiang, despite not fulfilling Chao Gai's dying wish directly, was eventually persuaded by Lu Junyi and the other outlaw chieftains to succeed Chao Gai as the chief of Liangshan. Song Jiang then executed Shi Wengong and offered his head as a sacrifice to Chao Gai's spirit, thus fulfilling the act of vengeance.
3. Posthumous Status and Legacy
Chao Gai's influence did not diminish with his death; rather, it transformed into a powerful symbolic and spiritual presence that continued to shape the destiny of the Liangshan outlaws and resonate in later interpretations of the *Water Margin*.
3.1. Spiritual Guardianship
Even after his death, Chao Gai retained a profound role as a spiritual guardian of the Liangshan outlaws. From time to time, ceremonial sacrifices were dedicated to his spirit, a testament to his enduring presence and the inspiration he continued to provide. His spirit was believed to exhibit supernatural powers, such as appearing in Song Jiang's dream to warn him of an impending illness and obstructing Shi Wengong's escape, thereby aiding in his capture. After the assembly of the 108 Stars, Chao Gai's tablet was enshrined in the innermost part of the Hall of Loyalty and Righteousness (Zhongyi Tang), positioning him as a guardian deity of Liangshan, even above the 108 Stars themselves. Some interpretations suggest that he was considered the reincarnation of Vaisravana, the "Pagoda-Bearing Heavenly King," linking his nickname to a deeper mythological significance, although this is not explicitly stated within the novel.
3.2. Historical and Literary Analysis
Chao Gai's character has been subject to various academic and cultural analyses, reflecting his evolving significance within the *Water Margin* narrative and beyond.
3.2.1. Reinterpretation during the Cultural Revolution
During China's Cultural Revolution in the early 1970s, Chao Gai's character underwent a significant political reinterpretation, particularly influenced by Mao Zedong. Mao saw parallels between Chao Gai-a revolutionary leader who was eventually deified and sidelined-and himself, who, despite being the leader of the Chinese revolution, had lost practical power after the failures of the Great Leap Forward and later sought to reassert it through the Cultural Revolution. This personal identification led to a major campaign criticizing *Water Margin*, where Chao Gai was elevated as a symbol of authentic revolutionary leadership, implicitly contrasting him with Song Jiang, who was often depicted as a capitulationist figure. Mao viewed the Liangshan outlaws, especially under Chao Gai's leadership, as a revolutionary collective, emphasizing their slogan "delivering justice on Heaven's behalf" (替天行道Chinese) as a revolutionary ideology.
3.2.2. Evolution of Character's Status
The status and portrayal of Chao Gai have undergone considerable evolution through the various prototypes and earlier versions of the *Water Margin* story. Prior to the definitive novel, Chao Gai's name was already present in the legends surrounding the Liangshan bandit group, alongside Song Jiang. In "Song Jiang Thirty-Six Praises" (宋江三十六人賛Chinese), a painting by Gong Shengyu from the late Southern Song dynasty or early Yuan dynasty, Chao Gai is depicted as the 34th out of 36 figures, indicating a relatively minor position.
However, in the later compilation of stories, *Da Song Xuanhe Yishi* (大宋宣he YishiChinese), considered a direct prototype of *Water Margin*, the core storyline of Chao Gai, including the convoy robbery involving drugged wine and his death before the assembly of the 108 heroes, had already been established. Despite this, he was still listed as the 36th (and last) of the 36 heroes, and his nickname remained "Iron Heavenly King."
Scholarly hypotheses attempt to explain this transformation in his status. One theory, proposed by Miyazaki Ichisada in his work *Suikoden: Kyoko no naka no Shijitsu* (水滸伝 虚構の中の史実Suikoden: Truth in FictionJapanese), suggests that as the *Water Margin* narrative solidified, Chao Gai's narrative importance as Song Jiang's predecessor increased. Furthermore, his nickname "Heavenly King" may have evoked associations with Vaisravana (known as the Pagoda-Bearing Heavenly King), leading to his elevation as an "extra" figure positioned above the 108 Stars, serving as the overall guardian deity of Liangshan. Another hypothesis, put forth by Otsuka Hidataka in *Tensho to Taizan: 'Senwa Iji' yori miru 'Suikoden' seiritsu no nazo* (天書と泰山 : 『宣和遺事』よりみる『水滸伝』成立の謎Heavenly Book and Mount Tai: The Mystery of the Formation of 'Water Margin' from 'Xuanhe Yishi'Japanese), speculates that the story of Chao Gai's succession to his sworn brother Song Jiang might have been based on the historical precedent of Zhao Kuangyin and Zhao Kuangyi's succession. This story, however, was later modified to its current form to avoid any perception of criticizing the contemporary government, as such a direct parallel to palace secrets might have been deemed too sensitive. Chao Gai's personal history as a respected official who turned outlaw also foreshadows the Liangshan way of life and their subsequent method of recruiting members who had previously served in the government, highlighting the pervasive nature of governmental corruption that drove honorable individuals to banditry.