Alfred von Waldersee

1.1. Birth and Family Background

Waldersee was born in Potsdam, Prussia, on 8 April 1832. He was the fifth of six children born to Franz Heinrich Graf von Waldersee (1791-1873), a Prussian cavalry general, and Bertha von Hünerbein (1799-1859). The Waldersee family was of noble descent, originating from Franz Anton von Waldersee (1763-1823), an illegitimate son of Leopold III Friedrich Franz, Duke of Anhalt-Dessau (1740-1817) and Johanne Eleonore Hoffmeier (1739-1816). Despite his illegitimate birth, Franz Anton was raised and educated at the ducal court and was granted the title of `Graf<sub>Count</sub><sup>German</sup>` in 1786. The family's estate, Waterneverstorf, is situated on the Baltic Sea coast near Behrensdorf in the German federal state of Schleswig-Holstein.

1.2. Education and Early Military Training

Waldersee began his military education at various cadet schools. In 1850, he was commissioned as a `Leutnant<sub>Second Lieutenant</sub><sup>German</sup>` into the Artillery Corps of the Prussian Army. His aptitude for military service quickly garnered favorable attention from his superiors. He received specialized training in both artillery and engineering, skills that would prove valuable throughout his career.

2.1. Early War Service

Waldersee's first major campaign was the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. During this conflict, he served as an `aide-de-camp<sub>aide-de-camp</sub><sup>French</sup>` to General of Artillery Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia, accompanying him at the pivotal Battle of Königgrätz. His performance led to his promotion to major and assignment to the Prussian General Staff. He subsequently served on the staff of the X Army Corps, a newly formed unit in the recently conquered Kingdom of Hanover.

In January 1870, Waldersee was appointed military attaché at the Prussian embassy in Paris. This position allowed him to gather crucial intelligence on French troop strengths and military capabilities, which proved immensely valuable during the impending Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). As a Lieutenant Colonel, Waldersee's insights and military acumen made him a highly effective assistant to the "supreme War-Lord." He was present at the major battles around Metz, serving on the staff of General Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. He later participated in operations against Chanzy's army on the Loire River. Although the Grand Duke was a capable soldier, his tactical success in the western campaign was largely attributed to Waldersee's advice. Following the war, Waldersee was awarded the Iron Cross, First Class, and was appointed as the German representative in Paris, a challenging post where his tact and courtesy were noted. By the end of 1871, he assumed command of the 13th Uhlan Regiment in Hanover, and two years later, he became chief of staff of the Hanoverian Army corps, where he had previously served.

2.2. General Staff Positions

In 1882, Waldersee was selected by Field Marshal Helmuth von Moltke the Elder to be his principal assistant on the General Staff in Berlin, with the rank of `Generalquartiermeister<sub>Quartermaster-General</sub><sup>German</sup>`. This appointment positioned Waldersee as the likely successor to the aging Moltke. Waldersee frequently accompanied Prince Wilhelm, the future Kaiser Wilhelm II, on foreign trips as a representative of Kaiser Wilhelm I. This fostered a developing relationship between the two, though Waldersee's conservative and reactionary views were a source of concern for Wilhelm's liberal parents, Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm and Victoria, Princess Royal, who saw him as "anti-Semitic, narrowly zealous in religion, and reactionary."

Waldersee essentially managed the General Staff's affairs, effectively serving as chief-of-staff in all but name. Upon Moltke's retirement in August 1888, the newly crowned 29-year-old Kaiser Wilhelm II consented to Waldersee's appointment as Chief of the Imperial General Staff. However, Waldersee's independent and often unpredictable nature soon led to clashes with the young Emperor. During the `Kaisermanöver<sub>Imperial Maneuvers</sub><sup>German</sup>` (autumn maneuvers) of the Imperial Army in 1890, Waldersee audaciously "defeated" the formations commanded by the impetuous Wilhelm II. This led to Waldersee losing the Kaiser's confidence. He was relieved of his duties as Chief of Staff in 1891 and reassigned to command the IX Army Corps at Hamburg-Altona. While a clear demotion, it remained an important assignment. Waldersee established his residence in Hamburg, near Bismarck's retirement estate at Friedrichsruh. In 1898, he was appointed inspector-general of the Third Army at Hanover, a transfer accompanied by expressions of Wilhelm II's goodwill.

2.3. Expedition to China

In 1900, during the Boxer Rebellion, two thousand European and Chinese Christians were besieged in the legation compound in Peking (Beijing) by Boxer insurgents. An eight-nation International Relief Force, comprising European, American, and Japanese troops, was dispatched for their rescue. Following the murder of Kaiser Wilhelm II's minister to China, Baron Clemens von Ketteler, by the Boxers, Germany asserted a claim of priority in the "crusade against Chinese barbarism." Wilhelm II was determined that Waldersee should command the expedition to China. He publicly announced this, falsely attributing the initiative to Tsar Nicholas II of Russia. In reality, Wilhelm had sent a telegram to his cousin Nicholas, asking if he would object to Russian troops being under German command. Nicholas replied that he had no objection, which Wilhelm then misrepresented. This announcement, made without consulting other powers, caused significant diplomatic strain for the `Auswärtiges Amt<sub>Foreign Office</sub><sup>German</sup>`, which had to persuade other nations to accept Waldersee's appointment, effectively through diplomatic blackmail.

On 7 August 1900, Waldersee, then 68 years old and semi-retired but newly promoted to Field Marshal, received a telegram from Wilhelm II confirming his command of the expedition. He was officially proposed by the Tsar of Russia and seconded by the Japanese as the first Allied Supreme Commander of modern times. Preparations for his departure from Germany to China generated considerable satirical commentary, known as `Waldersee Rummel<sub>Waldersee theatricals</sub><sup>German</sup>`, which he detested. He arrived in Peking on 17 October 1900, too late to direct his multinational force in any significant combat, as the main fighting was already over. He installed himself in the bedroom of the Dowager Empress in the Forbidden City, a move that reflected his ambition for a glorious military victory, which was ultimately unfulfilled.

Despite the cessation of major hostilities, Waldersee engaged in "feverish activity," ordering 75 punitive expeditions into the countryside around Beijing. These expeditions resulted in the deaths of thousands of people, predominantly women and children. These "unrewarding enterprises" were, from Waldersee's perspective, "hardly constituted war." However, some historians credit Waldersee with preventing serious animosities among the international contingents, which were prone to disputes, and with averting numerous minor incidents.

During his time in China, Waldersee renewed his acquaintance with Sai Jinhua, a Chinese prostitute he had met in Europe. Legend suggests that Sai Jinhua, by sharing the Empress Dowager's "dragon bed" with Waldersee, attempted and sometimes succeeded in curbing the brutality of the allied troops, influencing Waldersee to moderate the harsh treatment of Beijing residents. However, Sai Jinhua, in her own biography, admitted to being on good terms with Waldersee but "vigorously" disputed having a sexual relationship with him.

Waldersee recognized the unbecoming conduct of the occupying forces, noting their idleness, rampant venereal disease, and the widespread swindling of gullible soldiers with "Chinese art" after looting was curtailed. Upon the campaign's conclusion, he promptly returned to Germany. In 1901, in recognition of his "accomplishments in the interest of world peace," he was named an honorary citizen of Hamburg. He resumed his duties as inspector-general at Hanover, a post he held until his death in 1904.

3.1. Ideological Formation and Views

Waldersee held strong anti-Semitic and anti-socialist sentiments. His core beliefs were rooted in a profound fear of social upheaval and a conviction that Germany was surrounded by enemies, both internal and external. He believed in a vast "Jewish world conspiracy," asserting that the "entirety" of Jews globally were working towards the destruction of the `Reich<sub>Empire</sub><sup>German</sup>`. In his diary, he wrote in 1885: "We have far too many enemies, the French, the Slavs, above all the Catholics, and then the entire little rabble of the dispossessed, with their supporters." In 1886, he further noted: "Everywhere the masses are on the move, everywhere there is rebellion against authority, the negation of all religion, the generation of hatred and envy against those with wealth. We are probably facing major catastrophes." He described the `Zentrum<sub>Centre Party</sub><sup>German</sup>` as "hypocritical blackguards without a Fatherland, intent on the collapse of Germany and the destruction of Prussia," and saw socialism as a serious threat.

Waldersee's international outlook was equally pessimistic, viewing the spread of democracy in France, Italy, and Britain, and challenges to autocracy in Russia, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire, as signs of impending collapse. He believed that only a strong `Reich<sub>Empire</sub><sup>German</sup>` could serve as the "mainstay for the whole of Europe." He harbored dreams of leading the forces of the `Reich<sub>Empire</sub><sup>German</sup>` in an apocalyptic war against all he despised. Before such a war, he argued for the elimination of the "inner enemy," including the Progressive Party, the entire German Jewish community (or `Judenschaft<sub>Jewry</sub><sup>German</sup>`), and the liberal Crown Prince Friedrich and his British wife, Crown Princess Victoria. Waldersee dreaded the prospect of Crown Prince Friedrich ascending to the throne, fearing that Germany would become a democracy, the Junker nobility would lose their privileged status, and the Army would lose its "state within the state" autonomy by falling under civilian control. To prevent this, Waldersee plotted a military `Putsch<sub>coup</sub><sup>German</sup>` to depose Friedrich in favor of Prince Wilhelm, expel Victoria back to Britain, end universal manhood suffrage for the Reichstag, and launch a war against France, Austria, and Russia (despite Germany's alliances with the latter two). In an 1887 letter to Prince Wilhelm, Waldersee wrote: "All the Progressive people with their supporters, the entire `Judenschaft<sub>Jewry</sub><sup>German</sup>` and most foreign countries, that is to say, taken together are formidable foes... In view of the colossal influence which the Jews wield by virtue of their wealth, through which they have secured the services of Christians in influential positions, even though they themselves are few in number, they are by far the most dangerous of our enemies."

3.2. Political Maneuvering and Influence

Waldersee's political ambitions often put him at odds with Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. While officially Moltke's second-in-command, Waldersee had effectively elevated military attachés in Imperial embassies into a "virtually independent diplomatic service," often bypassing the Foreign Ministry. After a breach of protocol at the Vienna embassy was discovered, Bismarck personally reprimanded Waldersee to assert control over foreign affairs.

Waldersee was deeply involved in the political intrigues of the time. He openly aspired to the chancellorship himself and was considered a potential successor to Bismarck, particularly after Bismarck's effective dismissal in 1890. Waldersee criticized Bismarck's foreign policy, advocating for a preventive war against Russia and France before France could rebuild its military strength, a stance that Bismarck vehemently opposed. In 1888, Emperor Wilhelm I died, and Friedrich III briefly ascended to the throne. Waldersee, knowing Friedrich was dying of throat cancer, canceled his `Putsch<sub>coup</sub><sup>German</sup>` plans, correctly anticipating that his friend, Prince Wilhelm, would soon become Emperor. Waldersee also engaged in the suppression of the Social Democratic Party, consistently viewing socialism as a threat to the Empire and positioning himself as a loyal servant of the Emperor. His influence was so significant that he is often regarded as the first "political" general in the German Empire, a precursor to figures like Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff in the Weimar Republic era.

4.1. Marriage

On 14 April 1874, Alfred von Waldersee married Mary Esther Lee (1837-1914). Mary was the third daughter of David Lee, a wealthy merchant from New York City, and the widow of Prince Frederick of Schleswig-Holstein. She had previously been granted the title of Princess of Nöer by the Emperor of Austria. Mary was known for her philanthropic efforts, becoming an advocate for the poor in Prussia and being honored for her compassion. Her elder sister, Josephine, was married to Baron August von Wächter, the Württembergian Minister of Foreign Affairs.

5.1. Historical Assessment

Waldersee is widely recognized as the first "political" general in the German Empire. Unlike his predecessor, Moltke, who largely adhered to Bismarck's political initiatives, Waldersee actively pursued his own political agenda, including advocating for a preventive war against Russia and France. His strategic thinking, particularly his focus on pre-emptive military action, influenced subsequent German military planning. He is considered a key figure in the development of German military doctrine, and his strategies against Russia and France were later incorporated into the Schlieffen Plan, which became the fundamental German military strategy at the outset of World War I. Although often overshadowed by the more famous Moltke and Schlieffen, Waldersee's operational capabilities are considered by some to be on par with theirs. Notably, he had drafted a private operational plan for the Russo-Japanese War shortly before his death, which, according to Schlieffen, remarkably aligned with the actual Japanese military strategy.

5.2. Criticism and Controversy

Waldersee's legacy is also marked by significant criticism and controversy. His deeply conservative and reactionary ideology, particularly his documented anti-Semitic and anti-socialist views, has drawn considerable scrutiny. Historian John C. G. Röhl suggested that Waldersee "seems to have suffered from some form of paranoid megalomania," pointing to his belief in a vast Jewish world conspiracy aimed at destroying the `Reich<sub>Empire</sub><sup>German</sup>`. His political maneuvering, including his ambition for the chancellorship and his clashes with Bismarck and Wilhelm II, highlight his willingness to engage in political intrigue to advance his agenda.

His command during the China expedition also faced criticism. While he was credited with maintaining order among the allied forces, his "feverish activity" in ordering 75 punitive expeditions, which led to the deaths of thousands, mostly women and children, represents a darker aspect of his command. The public spectacle surrounding his departure for China, dubbed the `Waldersee Rummel<sub>Waldersee theatricals</sub><sup>German</sup>`, also became a source of satirical comment. His controversial relationship with Sai Jinhua further added to the scrutiny of his conduct during the expedition.