Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma

1.1. Childhood and Education

Alessandro was born on 27 August 1545. His father was Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma, who was a grandson of Pope Paul III. His mother was Margaret of Austria, an illegitimate daughter of the Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, Charles V. Alessandro had a twin brother named Carlo, who died in Rome on 7 October 1549, less than two months after his birth.

In 1550, Alessandro and his mother left Rome for Parma. When Margaret was appointed Governor of the Netherlands in 1556, Alessandro accompanied her to Brussels. He was then placed under the custody of Philip II of Spain to ensure the loyalty of the Farnese family to the Spanish crown. While in the King's care, he visited the English royal court. Subsequently, he moved to Spain, where he was raised and educated alongside his cousin, the ill-fated Don Carlos, and his half-uncle, Don Juan, both of whom were close to his age.

1.2. Marriage and Early Military Career

In 1565, Alessandro Farnese's marriage to Maria of Portugal was celebrated with great splendor in Brussels. This marriage marked the end of his period as a hostage of Philip II. Maria was known for her piety, deep affection for her husband, and extensive education. As the granddaughter of Manuel I, King of Portugal, she held significant influence at the court in Madrid.

Alessandro commanded three galleys during the Battle of Lepanto (1571) and participated in subsequent campaigns against the Turks. It would be seven years before he again had the opportunity to display his military talents on a large scale. During this interval, the provinces of the Netherlands had revolted against Spanish rule. Don Juan of Austria, who had been sent as governor-general to restore order, faced considerable difficulties in dealing with William the Silent, who had successfully united all the provinces in common resistance to King Philip II.

2.1. Appointment and the Dutch Revolt

In the autumn of 1577, shortly after his wife's death, Farnese led Spanish reinforcements from Italy along the Spanish Road to join Don Juan of Austria in the Netherlands. His able strategy and prompt decision at a critical moment were decisive in winning the Battle of Gembloux (1578) in early 1578, where the Dutch forces were defeated. Shortly after this victory, the Siege of Zichem took place, during which the garrison was massacred and the town was sacked. This incident remains a significant stain on Farnese's otherwise acclaimed career. This was followed by the five-day Siege of Nivelles in March 1578, where the citizens quickly capitulated, influenced by the fate of Zichem. That summer, Farnese managed to prevent the Spanish defeat at the Battle of Rijmenam (1578) from being decisive.

In October 1578, Don Juan, whose health had deteriorated, died. Philip II appointed Farnese to succeed him as Captain-General of the Army of Flanders. Initially, Philip also appointed Farnese's mother, Margaret, as co-Governor-General. However, Alessandro found this arrangement unacceptable, demanding to hold both titles of Captain-General and Governor-General, threatening to resign otherwise and leave military matters entirely to Margaret. Philip eventually conceded, and after four years, Margaret returned to Parma, leaving Alessandro as the sole Governor-General.

2.2. Diplomatic Strategy and the Union of Arras

Upon Don Juan's death, Farnese was confronted with a complex situation in the Netherlands, where his opponents were deeply divided along religious (Catholic and Protestant) and regional (Fleming and Walloon) lines. He skillfully exploited these divisions to his advantage. Through the Treaty of Arras, signed in January 1579, he secured the support of the "Malcontents," the Catholic nobles of the southern (Walloon) provinces, for the royal cause. This diplomatic success regained the allegiance of these provinces for the Spanish king. In response, the rebels in the seven northern provinces formed the Union of Utrecht, formally renouncing Philip's rule and pledging to fight to the end for their independence.

2.3. Major Sieges and Military Campaigns

Once he had secured a base of operations in Hainaut and Artois, Farnese earnestly began the task of reconquering Brabant and Flanders by force. His strategy involved offering generous terms for surrender: no massacres or looting, retention of historic urban privileges, full pardon and amnesty, and a gradual return to the Catholic Church.

He commenced the Siege of Maastricht (1579) on 12 March 1579. Farnese ordered his troops to sap the city walls, while the inhabitants of Maastricht dug counter-tunnels. Hundreds of Spanish soldiers died in underground fighting, some from boiling oil poured into their tunnels, others from lack of oxygen when Dutch defenders ignited fires. An additional 500 Spanish soldiers died when a mine they intended to use exploded prematurely. On the night of 29 June, Farnese's men managed to enter the city while the exhausted defenders slept. As the city had not surrendered after the walls were breached, the laws of warfare in the 16th century permitted the victors to loot the conquered city. The Spanish forces plundered Maastricht for three days, resulting in many civilian deaths. The looting was particularly violent, possibly exacerbated by Farnese being bedridden with a fever during this period.

In adherence to the Treaty of Arras, the Spanish troops were temporarily expelled from the country, leaving Alexander with only Walloon troops for the Siege of Tournai (1581). The difficulties encountered with these less disciplined forces during the siege helped convince the Walloon lords to allow the return of foreign, and more importantly, Spanish troops.

The apex of Alexander Farnese's military career was the siege of the great seaport of Antwerp. The city was open to the sea, strongly fortified, and defended with resolute determination by its citizens, led by Marnix van St. Aldegonde and assisted by the ingenious Italian engineer Federigo Giambelli. The siege began in 1584 and demanded all of Farnese's military genius. He successfully cut off all sea access to Antwerp by constructing a bridge of boats across the Scheldt from Kallo to Oordam, despite desperate efforts by the besieged townspeople. The terms offered for surrender included a clause requiring all Protestants to leave the city within four years. This disciplined capture and occupation of Antwerp should not be confused with the bloody events of the Spanish Fury on 4 November 1576; Farnese consciously avoided the mistakes of his predecessors. With the fall of Antwerp, and with Mechelen and Brussels already under Farnese's control, the entirety of the southern Netherlands was once more placed under the authority of Philip II. Only Holland and Zeeland, whose geographical position made them unassailable except by water, remained difficult to conquer.

Alexander pressed operations in the regions of the Meuse and the Rhine to maintain trade with Germany and prepare a gateway for conquering Holland and Zeeland. However, Philip II's parsimonious disbursement of funds began to negatively impact campaigns following Antwerp's conquest. The first notable Spanish defeat under Farnese's command occurred during his initial attempt to take control of Grave. In December 1585, facing a growing food shortage, Farnese marched his troops towards the Rhine and Meuse regions to relieve the burden of feeding them from Flanders, Brabant, and the Walloon provinces, while also undertaking operations to secure trade along those rivers. That winter was nearly disastrous for Farnese's army, saved only by the ""Miracle of Empel"." Nevertheless, by 7 June, the Siege of Grave (1586) was a fait accompli. Fortunately for Alexander, who became Duke upon his father's death in 1586, the poorly supplied English forces, sent by Elizabeth I, were defeated by his troops. The Siege of Sluis (1587) was necessary to secure a safe harbor for the Armada ships and proved successful.

2.4. Reconquest of the Southern Netherlands

Farnese's campaigns were largely successful in bringing the southern provinces of the Netherlands back under Spanish control. His strategic approach, combining military pressure with diplomatic overtures, effectively divided the rebel forces and secured the allegiance of the Catholic-majority southern regions. This reconquest established a clear cultural and religious separation between the northern and southern Netherlands, a division that would later significantly influence the formation of modern Belgium.

2.5. Challenges and Limitations

Despite his military successes, Farnese faced numerous challenges and limitations during his governorship. Financial constraints imposed by Philip II's parsimony frequently led to troop mutinies and shortages of supplies, hampering his ability to sustain continuous campaigns. The northern provinces, united by the Union of Utrecht, maintained persistent resistance, proving difficult to conquer due to their strong defenses and geographical advantages. Furthermore, Farnese's efforts in the Netherlands were repeatedly interrupted by Philip II's demands for intervention in France, which diverted crucial resources and troops away from the Dutch front, allowing the northern rebels to regain momentum.

4.1. Relief of Paris

Farnese intended to refocus his attention on the northern Netherlands, where the Dutch rebels had regrouped. However, on the night of 1-2 August 1589, Henry III of France was assassinated. Farnese was then ordered into France by Philip II to support the Duke of Mayenne and the Catholic opposition to the Protestant Henri de Navarre, also known as the "Béarnais." This diversion enabled the Dutch rebels to regain momentum in their revolt, which had been in ever deeper trouble since 1576. Parma had warned Philip II that the French incursion would endanger the gains made in the Netherlands and stated he would not accept responsibility for any losses or failures resulting from not heeding his advice.

Parma left Brussels on 6 August 1590 and arrived at Guise on 15 August. In late August, he moved to relieve Paris from the lengthy siege it had been placed under by Huguenots and Royalists loyal to Henry IV. Farnese's main goal was simply to resupply Paris by raising the blockade, not to annihilate Henry's army. When Henry learned of the approach of Mayenne and Farnese, he broke camp to actively engage in battle. Parma, however, had no intention of direct combat. He determined that capturing the fort at Lagny-sur-Marne would ensure traffic was maintained along the Marne River, which was still in the hands of the Catholic League. At dawn on 5 September, Lagny was bombarded and then stormed by Spanish troops, who put its 800-man garrison to the sword, all within sight of Henri's camp, a mere 7.5 mile ^{(12 km)} away. Henry abandoned the siege of Paris two days later but made one last unsuccessful attempt on 8-9 September. With the course of the Marne completely open to traffic, supplies flowed into Paris for the next several days.

Keeping Paris supplied required victuals from multiple sources. Most of Henry's forces occupied the areas along the Seine and Yonne rivers, so Parma decided to clear Corbeil to restore traffic on the Seine. The siege began on 22 September, and by 16 October, the town was taken. Its garrison was put to the sword, and the town was thoroughly sacked. With the siege of Paris lifted and its supply routes secured, Farnese began his return journey to the Netherlands on 3 November, where Maurice of Nassau had gone on the offensive. Alexander's withdrawal was not easy; he had thousands of men, wagons, and horses to move during foul weather, with the Béarnais harassing him the entire way. Anticipating these difficulties, the Duke arranged his columns in such a way that Henry could not rout him. Twenty days into the march, on 25 November near Amiens, Henry, with his cavalry, boldly charged Farnese's column only to be routed himself beyond the Aisne River and wounded during the retreat. One final unsuccessful skirmish took place on 29 November, with Henry within a few hundred paces of Farnese. Parma and Mayenne parted ways at Guise, and Alexander arrived in Brussels on 4 December 1590.

4.2. Siege of Rouen and Injury

Alexander Farnese had appointed Peter Ernst von Mansfeld as acting Governor-General while he was in France. Days after Farnese's departure for France, Mansfeld and Colonel Francisco Verdugo, operating in Friesland, began complaining to Philip II about the lack of money, supplies, and troop mutinies-all the issues Farnese had been raising for years. By the time Farnese returned, Maurice had regained Steenbergen, Roosendaal, Oosterhout, Turnhout, and Westerlo. Farnese's absence led to a reduction in Spanish military activity, allowing the Dutch time to reflect on effective policies against their enemy. This period marked the beginning of the Dutch Military Reforms, which eventually allowed them to achieve an even footing against the Spanish; Alexander had finally met his match in Maurice.

On the night of 24 July 1591, just days after engaging in the Siege of Knodsenburg, Alexander Farnese received orders from Philip II to abandon everything and return to France to aid the Catholic League. Realizing the difficulties of capturing the fort at Knodsenburg, he was actually relieved to honorably abandon an enterprise undertaken under unfavorable auspices. Before he could consider another expedition to aid the League, he needed to resume his treatments at Spa, where he arrived on 1 August with his son Ranuccio. In mid-November, Alexander drafted instructions for the interim Governor-General, Mansfeld again, and put measures in place for the defense of the Netherlands during his absence. By the end of November, the Duke was in Valenciennes, where he mustered his troops. Towards the middle of January 1592, Parma rendezvoused with Mayenne and made preparations to rescue Rouen from Henry.

Before heading to Rouen, Farnese made the strategic decision to capture Neufchâtel-en-Bray to keep supply lines open. Finally, on 20 April, Parma arrived a few miles from Rouen, where he was met by 50 cavalry sent by Villars. They informed him that Henry had lifted the siege and withdrawn towards Pont-de-l'Arche to entrench there; Rouen was saved. Rather than follow Farnese's advice to attack Henry's camp and destroy his forces, the League's leaders chose to capture Caudebec-en-Caux. During the siege, while reconnoitering the town, Farnese was severely wounded by a musket shot in his right forearm. The wound further undermined his already precarious health, forcing him to call his son Ranuccio to take command of the troops. Henry saw this as an opportunity to avenge the loss of Rouen. Instead of risking a full attack against the League's forces, he adopted a strategy from Farnese's own playbook, deciding to cut off all supply routes and starve them. The League's army abandoned Caudebec for Yvetot. The situation was worse than at Caudebec, and all the while, Farnese was seriously ill and mostly bed-ridden, yet still sharp in mind. The Duke of Parma finally devised a plan to clandestinely cross the Seine in boats, leaving just enough men to make Henry believe the entire army was still encamped. The Catholic army was across the river and long gone by the time Henry learned of it, literally right under his nose. After returning to the Netherlands, Alexander received a letter from Pope Clement VIII on 28 June, congratulating him "for rescuing the Catholic Army." Farnese quickly made his way back to Spa for yet more treatments.

5.1. Reputation as a Commander and Diplomat

Farnese's talents as a commander, strategist, and organizer earned him the regard of contemporaries and historians as the greatest general of his age, as well as one of the best in history. He stood out for his equal proficiency in both warfare and diplomacy. Under his leadership, Philip II's army achieved the most comprehensive successes in the history of the Eighty Years' War, capturing more than thirty towns between 1581 and 1587 before being diverted from the Netherlands to the French theater. His campaigns gave Spain back permanent control of the southern provinces, establishing the cultural and religious separation which would eventually become the nation of Belgium.

5.2. Criticisms and Controversies

Despite his acclaimed military genius, Farnese's career was not without criticism. The Siege of Zichem, where the garrison was put to the sword and the town sacked, is considered the biggest stain on his otherwise chivalrous career. Similarly, the three-day looting of Maastricht after its capture, which resulted in many civilian deaths, highlights the brutal realities of warfare under his command, even if he was ill at the time. These incidents underscore the significant human cost associated with his campaigns and the harsh consequences faced by civilian populations in conquered cities.