Albert Ellis

1.1. Birth and Childhood

Ellis was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on September 27, 1913, and was raised in The Bronx borough of New York City from a young age. He was the eldest of three children. His paternal grandparents were Jewish immigrants from the Russian Empire, while his maternal grandfather hailed from Galicia, Poland, then part of Austria-Hungary.

His family dynamics were complex. His father, Harry, a broker, was often away on business trips and reportedly showed minimal affection to his children. His parents later divorced during his teenage years, after which he lived solely with his mother. His father played no significant role in his life thereafter. Ellis described his mother, Hattie, as self-absorbed and exhibiting characteristics of bipolar disorder. He recalled her as a "bustling chatterbox who never listened," often expounding strong opinions without factual basis and being emotionally distant. Ellis recounted that she was often sleeping when he left for school and not home when he returned. Instead of feeling bitter, he took on the responsibility of caring for his younger brother and sister, even purchasing an alarm clock to wake and dress them. During the Great Depression, all three children sought work to help the family.

1.2. Health Issues and Early Personality Development

Ellis was a sickly child and experienced numerous health problems throughout his youth. At the age of five, he was hospitalized with a kidney disease. He also suffered from tonsillitis, which led to a severe streptococcal infection requiring emergency surgery. He reported eight hospitalizations between the ages of five and seven, one of which lasted nearly a year. His parents provided little emotional support, rarely visiting or consoling him during these times. Ellis stated that he learned to confront his adversities by developing a "growing indifference to that dereliction." Health issues continued into adulthood, as he developed diabetes at age 40.

1.3. Adolescent Experiences

During his adolescence, Ellis harbored exaggerated fears of public speaking and was extremely shy around women. At age 19, demonstrating an early inclination towards cognitive-behavioral principles, he deliberately challenged his fears. Over a month, he forced himself to initiate conversations with 100 women in the Bronx Botanical Gardens. Although he did not secure a date, he reported that this exercise effectively desensitized him to his fear of rejection.

In his autobiography, Ellis candidly discussed engaging in nonconsensual sexual acts during his teens and early twenties. He wrote that he became addicted to nonconsensual frotteurism at age fifteen, claiming to have had "hundreds of frotteur-incited sex adventures" into his twenties. He described seeking out crowded places like trains, movie theaters, and elevators to rub against women's backsides and hips, sometimes resulting in orgasm, and explicitly stated these encounters were "sometimes nonconsenting." Reflecting on these actions later in life, he expressed guilt and remorse, stating, "I deplore the sin and accept the sinner." However, he also noted that "Subway sex was the cheapest and easiest sex I ever had, and I continued it into my twenties . . . . But in some ways it was great: no fuss, no obligations, no time wasted, no having to put up with the inane conversation of most women, no pregnancy, no disease, no boredom."

2.1. Academic Path

Ellis pursued higher education during the Great Depression. He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in business from what was then known as the City College of New York Downtown in 1934, with a focus on economics. In 1942, he began his graduate studies in clinical psychology at Teachers College, Columbia University, which at the time primarily trained psychologists in psychoanalysis. He completed his Master of Arts in clinical psychology from Teachers College in June 1943, and was awarded a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Clinical Psychology from Columbia in 1947. Even before receiving his PhD, in 1946, he published a critique of many widely used pencil-and-paper personality tests, concluding that only the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory met research standards.

2.2. Early Professional Life

Following his undergraduate studies, Ellis embarked on brief careers in business and writing. Finding business challenging during the Depression and his fiction unsuccessful, he discovered a talent for non-fiction writing. He researched and wrote extensively on human sexuality. His experiences providing lay counseling on this subject convinced him to pursue a new career in clinical psychology. While still working on his PhD, he began a part-time private practice, a possibility at the time due to the absence of psychologist licensing in New York.

2.3. Psychoanalytic Training and Disillusionment

After obtaining his PhD in 1947, Ellis initially believed that psychoanalysis was the most profound and effective form of therapy. Influenced by the theories of Sigmund Freud, he sought additional training in psychoanalysis. He underwent Jungian analysis and supervision with Richard Hulbeck, a leading analyst at the Karen Horney Institute. During this period, he also held teaching positions at New York University, Rutgers University, and Pittsburg State University. However, his faith in psychoanalysis gradually eroded. By January 1953, he had completely broken with psychoanalysis, viewing the years spent in training as wasted, and began advocating for a more active and directive approach, which he termed "rational therapy."

3.1. Theoretical Influences

Ellis's theoretical framework for REBT was shaped by a diverse array of philosophical and psychological thinkers. He drew inspiration from ancient philosophies, particularly Stoicism, which emphasized the power of reason over emotions and the importance of accepting what cannot be controlled. Psychologically, he was influenced by the writings of Karen Horney, Alfred Adler, Erich Fromm, and Harry Stack Sullivan. He was also a member of the North American Adlerian Psychology Society, reflecting the influence of Adlerian psychology on his thought. A crucial influence, which Ellis himself acknowledged as setting him on the philosophical path for rational therapy, was Alfred Korzybski and his work on general semantics, particularly the book Science and Sanity. Ellis also noted that while he developed his therapy independently, he later discovered that Paul Charles Dubois's "rational persuasion" had prefigured some of REBT's core principles, and he had studied Émile Coué from a young age. His own personal experiences also heavily influenced the development of his new theoretical approach to psychotherapy.

3.2. Evolution of REBT

Ellis began working on what would become REBT in the late 1940s. By January 1953, his break with psychoanalysis was complete, and he started calling himself a "rational therapist," advocating a more active and directive form of psychotherapy. In 1955, he formally introduced "Rational Therapy" (RT). This approach aimed to help clients understand and act on the realization that their personal philosophies contained beliefs contributing to their emotional pain. RT emphasized actively working to change self-defeating beliefs and behaviors by demonstrating their irrationality, self-defeatism, and rigidity. Ellis believed that through rational analysis and cognitive reconstruction, individuals could understand their self-defeating patterns in light of their core irrational beliefs and then develop more rational constructs.

In 1954, Ellis began teaching his new techniques to other therapists. By 1957, he formally set forth the first cognitive behavioral therapy by proposing that therapists help people adjust their thinking and behavior as the primary treatment for emotional and behavioral problems. Two years later, he published How to Live with a Neurotic, elaborating on his new method. In 1960, Ellis presented a paper on his approach at the American Psychological Association (APA) convention in Chicago. Despite mild interest, few recognized the paradigm shift he was proposing. At the time, behaviorism dominated experimental psychology, while psychoanalytic schools (Freud, Jung, Adler, Perls) prevailed in clinical psychology. Ellis's strong cognitive emphasis often provoked hostility from the psychotherapeutic establishment, with the notable exception of Adler's followers. He was known for his rough, confrontational therapeutic style in public seminars, though the REBT school he founded is practiced in a variety of styles by his students.

The name of his therapy evolved over time. In 1962, Rational Therapy became "Rational-Emotive Therapy" (RET). In the mid-1990s, he renamed it "Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy" (REBT) to emphasize the interconnected importance of cognition, emotion, and behavior in his therapeutic approach. He continued to develop the theory that cognition, emotion, and behavior are intertwined, and that an effective system for psychotherapy and behavior change must integrate all three.

3.3. Core Principles of REBT

REBT is an active-directive, philosophically and empirically based psychotherapy designed to resolve emotional and behavioral problems and help individuals lead happier, more fulfilling lives. It posits that psychological disturbances are primarily caused by a person's characteristics and irrational beliefs rather than specific past events.

A central concept in REBT is the ABCDE model:

• A - Activating Experiences (or Adversity): These are the events or situations that trigger emotional responses.
• B - Beliefs: These are the thoughts, interpretations, and evaluations an individual holds about the activating experiences, particularly irrational and self-defeating beliefs.
• C - Consequences: These are the emotional and behavioral outcomes that result from the beliefs, such as neurotic symptoms, negative emotions like panic, resentment, and anger, or depression stemming from mistaken beliefs.
• D - Disputes: This is the process where a therapist actively challenges and debates the client's irrational beliefs to help them develop more rational perspectives.
• E - Effects: These are the positive psychological impacts and new rational beliefs that emerge from successfully disputing irrational thoughts.

According to Ellis, common types of mistaken thinking include ignoring positive aspects, fixating on negatives, and overgeneralizing. He also identified twelve irrational ideas that typically cause and exacerbate neurosis:

• The idea that every adult must feel loved by others for everything they do, rather than focusing on practical goals or loving others instead of constantly demanding love.
• The idea that certain actions are inherently bad and destructive, and perpetrators should be condemned, rather than viewing harmful or antisocial actions as stemming from poor judgment, indifference, or neurosis, and seeking to help perpetrators change.
• The idea that the world will end if things do not go according to plan, rather than believing that even if things go awry, it is better to try to change or manage the bad conditions to overcome difficulties.
• The idea that human suffering comes from external sources and is inflicted by others, rather than recognizing that neurotic attitudes are caused by one's own views of unfavorable conditions.
• The idea that if something is frightening or dangerous, one should be obsessed with it, rather than bravely facing the situation and seeing it as not the end of everything.
• The idea that it is easier to avoid life's difficulties and responsibilities than to confront and conquer them, rather than realizing that the easy path often leads to self-inflicted hardship.
• The idea that one needs something stronger or greater than oneself to lean on, rather than thinking and acting independently, whatever the risks.
• The idea that one must always be capable and intelligent and manage everything well, rather than acting within one's abilities and accepting that one is imperfect and will make mistakes.
• The idea that when a major event occurs, it will leave a permanent mark and affect one's life forever, rather than learning from the past for today and the future, and not being overly fixated on past events.
• The idea that one must be able to manage things well as a substitute for the idea that the world is full of unexpected possibilities, and one can still live life with these possibilities.
• The idea that happiness is achieved through inherent natural talent and is for oneself, rather than believing that the desire for happiness is determined by one's willingness to achieve goals creatively or to project efforts to achieve happiness outwards.
• The idea that one ultimately cannot control one's own feelings and that disappointment is inevitable, rather than believing that one can control negative feelings by changing the assumptions that cause them.

Ellis also advocated for the importance of unconditional self-acceptance, emphasizing that individuals should accept themselves simply for being alive, human, and unique, without needing a global rating or being overly influenced by others' opinions.

3.4. Relationship with Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

REBT is widely recognized as the first form of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). Ellis's approach was foundational to the "cognitive revolution" in psychotherapy, which shifted the focus from purely behavioral or psychodynamic models to the role of thoughts and beliefs in emotional distress. While Ellis's approach integrated cognitive, emotive, and behavioral methods, his strong emphasis on cognition was particularly groundbreaking. The subsequent growth and popularity of CBT in many countries, largely due to the rigorous research supporting the work of the cognitive therapy school founded by Aaron T. Beck, further cemented REBT's historical significance. Despite its foundational role, Ellis later expressed a nuanced view, stating, "I hope I am also not a devout REBTer, since I do not think it is an unmitigated cure for everyone and do accept its distinct limitations."

4.1. Views on Sexuality and Relationships

By the 1960s, Ellis was regarded as one of the founders of the American sexual revolution. He gained significant recognition for his work as a sexologist and his liberal, humanistic, and at times controversial, opinions on human sexuality. He collaborated with the noted zoologist and sex researcher Alfred Kinsey, exploring human sexuality and love in numerous books and articles, topics that had been professional interests since the beginning of his career.

In 1958, Ellis published his influential work Sex Without Guilt, which advocated for a liberal attitude toward sex. He contributed to Paul Krassner's magazine The Realist, including an article in 1964 titled if this be heresy... Is pornography harmful to children?. In 1965, he published Homosexuality: Its Causes and Cure, which controversially viewed homosexuality as a pathology requiring a "cure." However, his views evolved. Following the American Psychiatric Association's decision in 1973 to no longer classify homosexuality as a mental disorder, Ellis clarified his stance in Sex and the Liberated Man (1976), stating that while some disturbed homosexual behaviors might be treatable, homosexuality itself is neither inherently good nor evil, except from a religious perspective. He further updated and re-wrote Sex Without Guilt in 2001, releasing it as Sex Without Guilt in the Twenty-First Century. In this revised edition, he expanded on his humanistic view of sexual ethics and morality, dedicating a chapter to offering advice to homosexual individuals on enhancing their sexual love lives, reflecting his evolved academic and practical ideals.

4.2. Humanism and Religious Views

Ellis identified as a humanist throughout his life. In his early work, particularly in Sex Without Guilt, he argued that religious restrictions on sexual expression were often needless and detrimental to emotional health. He famously debated religious psychologists like Orval Hobart Mowrer and Allen Bergin, asserting that religion frequently contributed to psychological distress. For his outspoken advocacy of nontheistic humanism, he was recognized as Humanist of the Year by the American Humanist Association in 1971, and in 2003, he was a signer of the Humanist Manifesto. He described himself as a probabilistic atheist, acknowledging the theoretical possibility of a god but deeming its probability so low as to be unworthy of attention.

While his personal atheism and humanism remained consistent, Ellis's professional views on the role of religion in mental health evolved. Initially, he overtly and often acerbically stated that devout religious beliefs and practices were harmful to mental health. In a 1980 pamphlet, "The Case Against Religiosity," he defined "religiosity" idiosyncratically as any devout, dogmatic, and demanding belief, noting its presence not only among religious individuals but also among orthodox psychotherapists, political believers, and aggressive atheists. In his later years, he significantly softened his opposition to religion. While maintaining his firm atheistic stance and proposing that thoughtful, probabilistic atheism was likely the most emotionally healthy approach to life, he acknowledged and agreed with survey evidence suggesting that belief in a loving God could also be psychologically healthy. This later approach was reflected in his book The Road to Tolerance and in Counseling and Psychotherapy with Religious Persons: A Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy Approach, which he co-authored with religious psychologists Stevan Lars Nielsen and W. Brad Johnson, outlining principles for integrating religious material and beliefs with REBT in therapy for religious clients.

4.3. Political Stance and Peace Advocacy

Ellis was a lifelong advocate for peace and a vocal opponent of militarism. He also expressed admiration for libertarian economist Walter Block's book, Defending the Undefendable.

5.1. Founding the Albert Ellis Institute

Despite the initial slow adoption of his approach, Ellis established his own institute. The Institute for Rational Living was founded as a non-profit organization in 1959. By 1968, it was chartered by the New York State Board of Regents as a training institute and psychological clinic. Later renamed the Albert Ellis Institute, it served as the primary base for his work, training therapists, and disseminating REBT principles for decades.

5.2. Public Speaking and Workshops

Ellis's work extended beyond clinical practice into education, politics, business, and philosophy. He became a prominent and often confrontational social commentator and public speaker on a wide array of issues. Throughout his career, he publicly debated numerous individuals with opposing views, including psychologist Nathaniel Branden on Objectivism and psychiatrist Thomas Szasz on the topic of mental illness. He frequently critiqued opposing psychotherapeutic approaches and questioned doctrines within certain dogmatic religious systems, such as spiritualism and mysticism.

From 1965 until the end of his life, he famously conducted his "Friday Night Workshops," where he performed therapy sessions with volunteers from the audience. In the 1970s, he introduced his popular "rational humorous songs," which combined witty lyrics with self-help messages set to popular tunes. Ellis also held workshops and seminars on mental health and psychotherapy worldwide well into his 90s. Among his international engagements, he notably visited Japan twice.

5.3. Influence on Psychology and Psychotherapy

While many of Ellis's ideas faced criticism from the psychotherapeutic establishment during the 1950s and 1960s, his reputation grew immensely in subsequent decades. From the 1960s onward, his prominence steadily increased as cognitive behavioral therapies (CBT) gained theoretical and scientific ground, largely due to the extensive research supporting the work of the cognitive therapy school founded by Aaron T. Beck.

Ellis had a profound impact on various schools of psychological thought, including rational behavior therapy created by his student, Maxie Clarence Maultsby Jr.. A 1982 survey of American and Canadian clinical psychologists and counselors ranked Ellis ahead of Freud as the figure who had exerted the most influence on their field. The same year, an analysis of psychology journals published in the U.S. found that Ellis was the most cited author after 1957. In 1985, the American Psychological Association (APA) presented Ellis with its award for "distinguished professional contributions." He held many important positions in professional societies, including the Division of Consulting Psychology of the APA, the Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality, the American Association of Marital and Family Therapy, the American Academy of Psychotherapists, and the American Association of Sex Educators, Counselors, and Therapists. He also served as a consulting or associate editor for numerous scientific journals and received the highest professional and clinical awards from many professional societies.

5.4. Awards and Honors

Albert Ellis received numerous awards and honors throughout his career, recognizing his significant contributions to psychology and psychotherapy:

• 1971: American Humanist Association "Humanist of the Year" award
• 1985: American Psychological Association award for "Distinguished Professional Contributions to Applied Research"
• 1988: American Counseling Association (ACA) Professional Development Award
• 1996: Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies Outstanding Clinician Award
• 2003: Award from the Association for Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (UK)
• 2005: Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies Lifetime Achievement Award
• 2006: New York State Psychological Association Lifetime Distinguished Service Award
• National Association of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapists' Outstanding Contributions to CBT Award
• 2013: American Psychological Association Award For Outstanding Lifetime Contributions to Psychology (posthumous)

6.1. Marriages and Family

Ellis's first marriage was to Karyl Corper, an actress, in 1938, which later ended in annulment. He had three children with Karyl after their divorce, when she was married to her husband Tony. His second marriage, in 1956, was to Rhoda Winter, a dancer; this marriage also ended in divorce. In 2004, he married Dr. Debbie Joffe, whom he described as "the greatest love of his life."

6.2. Significant Personal Relationships

For 37 years, from 1965 to 2002, Ellis maintained an open relationship with his companion, Janet L. Wolfe, a psychologist who served as the executive director of the Albert Ellis Institute. Wolfe later affectionately referred to him as a "closet mensch." His final marriage to Debbie Joffe Ellis was a close partnership, with her assisting him in his work during his final years, and he entrusted her with the legacy of REBT.

7.1. Academic and Professional Critiques

Some members of the psychotherapeutic establishment criticized Ellis for his interpretations of Sigmund Freud's theories and demanded more empirical evidence for his claims. While Ellis's work was foundational, critics noted that others, such as Aaron T. Beck, conducted more rigorous testing and empirical validation of their cognitive approaches than Ellis did for REBT.

7.2. Controversial Views and Behavior

Ellis was often criticized for his blunt language and confrontational therapeutic style, which some found aggressive. This was evident in his public debates, such as with Ayn Rand follower Nathaniel Branden. Beyond his professional demeanor, his candid autobiographical accounts of engaging in nonconsensual sexual acts (frotteurism) during his youth and early twenties also drew significant criticism and generated debate regarding his past behaviors and their implications.

8.1. Health and Final Years

Until falling ill at the age of 92 in 2006, Ellis maintained an extraordinary work ethic, typically working at least 16 hours a day. He continued writing books longhand on legal tablets, meeting with clients, and teaching. On his 90th birthday in 2003, he received congratulatory messages from prominent public figures, including then-President George W. Bush, New York senators Charles Schumer and Hillary Clinton, former President Bill Clinton, New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg, and even the Dalai Lama, who sent a blessed silk scarf for the occasion.

In 2004, Ellis experienced serious intestinal problems, leading to hospitalization and the removal of his large intestine. He returned to work after a few months of supportive care. Despite a series of health issues and profound hearing loss, he continued his work with the assistance of his wife, Australian psychologist Debbie Joffe Ellis. In April 2006, Ellis was hospitalized with pneumonia and spent over a year moving between the hospital and a rehabilitation facility.

8.2. Dispute with the Albert Ellis Institute

In 2005, a significant dispute arose over the management policies of the Albert Ellis Institute, leading to Ellis's removal from all professional duties and from the institute's board. However, he was reinstated to the board in January 2006 after successfully winning civil proceedings against the board members who had removed him. The conflict continued, and on June 6, 2007, lawyers acting on behalf of Albert Ellis filed a lawsuit against the Albert Ellis Institute in New York state court, alleging a breach of a long-term contract and seeking recovery of the property at 45 East 65th Street.

8.3. Death

Albert Ellis eventually returned to his residence on the top floor of the Albert Ellis Institute, where he died on July 24, 2007, at the age of 93, in his wife's arms. The cause of his death was reported as kidney failure and heart failure.

9.1. Enduring Impact on Psychotherapy

REBT and Ellis's cognitive-behavioral principles continue to exert a significant influence on therapeutic practice and research worldwide. His work laid the theoretical and practical groundwork for the broader field of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), which has become one of the most widely practiced and empirically supported forms of psychotherapy. Many of his later books, including his only college textbook, Personality Theories: Critical Perspectives (co-authored with Mike Abrams and Lidia Abrams), and his autobiography All Out!, incorporated autobiographical elements to illustrate how REBT insights helped him cope with personal problems like shyness, anger, and chronic illness. In early 2011, the book Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy by Albert and Debbie Joffe Ellis was released by the American Psychological Association, explaining the essentials of REBT for students, practitioners, and the general public. His wife, Debbie Joffe Ellis, updated this book with a second edition in 2019, continuing his legacy.

9.2. Posthumous Recognition and Cultural Impact

Albert Ellis received significant posthumous recognition for his historic role in psychology. At the opening ceremony of the 2013 American Psychological Association Convention, he was posthumously awarded the APA Award For Outstanding Lifetime Contributions to Psychology. In a eulogy, former APA president Frank Farley stated, "Psychology has had only a handful of legendary figures who not only command attention across much of the discipline but also receive high recognition from the public for their work. Albert Ellis was such a figure, known inside and outside of psychology for his astounding originality, his provocative ideas, and his provocative personality. He bestrode the practice of psychotherapy like a colossus." His ideas continue to resonate in popular culture and self-help literature, emphasizing rational thinking and emotional resilience.