Yun Kwan

1. Overview

Yun Kwan (윤관_{Yun Kwan}^Korean, 尹瓘^Japanese; 1040-1111) was a prominent Goryeo military general and statesman. He is celebrated for his pivotal role in defending the kingdom against aggressive Jurchen incursions and for his significant contributions to state reforms. Yun Kwan is particularly renowned for training and leading the elite Byeolmuban force to victory against the Jurchens, which led to the establishment of the Nine Fortresses (동북 9성_{Dongbuk Gu-seong}^Korean, 東北九城^Japanese) in Goryeo's northeastern frontier. His career, spanning the reigns of Kings Sukjong and Yejong, involved strengthening royal authority, developing infrastructure, and navigating complex diplomatic and political challenges, including debates over territorial policy. His legacy reflects the intricate balance between national security objectives and their social and territorial consequences, leaving an enduring impact on Goryeo's history and the prominence of the Papyeong Yun clan.

2. Early Life and Ancestry

Yun Kwan was born on July 12, 1040, according to the Gregorian calendar (June 1, 1040, by the lunar calendar). He was a descendant of Yun Sin-dal (윤신달_{Yun Sin-dal}^Korean, 尹莘達^Japanese), a revered Samhan Gongsin (Meritorious Subject of the Three Han). Yun Kwan was the fourth-generation descendant of Yun Sin-dal, though the family lineage prior to Yun Sin-dal remains largely unrecorded, with historical accounts focusing on Yun Kwan due to his later prominence as a meritorious general.

His father was Yun Chip-hyŏng (윤집형_{Yun Chip-hyŏng}^Korean, 尹執衡^Japanese), who held the official position of Geomgyo Sobuso-gam (檢校少府少監). Records do not provide information about his mother. Yun Kwan's wife was Lady Yi of the Incheon Yi clan (인천 이씨_{Incheon Yi clan}^Korean, 仁川李氏^Japanese), the daughter of Yi Seong-gan (이성간_{Yi Seong-gan}^Korean). Through his achievements and the subsequent prominence of his descendants, the Papyeong Yun clan (파평 윤씨_{Papyeong Yun clan}^Korean, 坡平尹氏^Japanese) became one of the most influential noble families in Goryeo and later in the Joseon Dynasty.

3. Early Career and Diplomacy

Yun Kwan began his public service career by passing the Gwageo (civil service examination) during the reign of Munjong of Goryeo. He steadily advanced through various civil posts, including Sibyu (拾遺) and Bogyeol (補闕).

In 1087, during the fourth year of King Seonjong's reign, he was appointed Hapmun Jihu (閤門祗候). In this capacity, he served as a Chulchusa (出推使), inspecting the regions of Gwangju, Cheongju, and Chungju.

By 1095, the first year of King Sukjong's reign, Yun Kwan had risen to the position of Jwasarangjung (佐司郞中) within the Sangseoseong (尙書省), one of the central administrative agencies. Upon Sukjong's ascension to the throne, Yun Kwan was dispatched as a Guksin-sa (國信使) to the Liao dynasty (Khitan Empire) alongside Hyeongbu Sirang (刑部侍郎) Im Ui (任懿) to formally announce Sukjong's coronation. In 1098, he visited an envoy from the Song dynasty to convey information about Sukjong's enthronement and was later sent again as an envoy to the Song dynasty with Jo Gyu (趙珪) to inform them of Sukjong's accession.

In 1098, he was appointed Jungseosain (中書舍人) and Donggung Sihaksa (東宮侍學士). In 1099, he became Uganui-daebu (右諫議大夫) and Hanlim Siganghaksa (翰林侍講學士). However, he resigned from this post because his relative, Jwaganui-daebu (左諫議大夫) Im Ui, served in the same institution, the Ganon (諫院) or Eosadae (御史臺), which the Jungseoseong (中書省) deemed inappropriate.

In 1101, Yun Kwan was appointed Chumiwon Jiju-sa (樞密院知奏事). In September of the same year, with the establishment of the Namgyeong Gaechangdogam (南京開創都監), he was dispatched to Yangju (present-day Seoul) with Pyeongjangsa (平章事) Choe Sa-chu (崔思諏) to scout locations for a new palace. He actively spearheaded the Nanjing construction project, which culminated in the completion of Nanjing Palace in May 1104 in the present-day Seoul area.

In 1102, he served as Jigonggeo (知貢擧), overseeing the Jinsa (進士) examination alongside Yi Hoeng (李宏). He subsequently held positions such as Eosadaebu (御史大夫) and Chumiwon Busa (樞密院副使). By 1103, he was promoted to Ibushangseo (吏部尙書) Gyeom Dongjichumiwonsa (同知樞密院事), and later to Jichumiwonsa Gyeom Hanlimhaksa Seungji (知樞密院事兼翰林學士承旨).

4. Reforms and Statecraft

During the reign of King Sukjong, Yun Kwan held various important government positions, including Donggung Sigang, Eosadaebu, Ibushangseo, and Hanlimhaksa Seungji. He became a trusted confidant of King Sukjong, working closely with the National Preceptor Uicheon (義天). Together, they were instrumental in implementing significant state reforms aimed at strengthening royal authority.

Their reform initiatives included:

• Nanjing Construction:** Actively promoting and overseeing the construction of Nanjing (present-day Seoul), with the Nanjing Palace being completed in May 1104.
• Currency Circulation:** Implementing policies to encourage the circulation of metal currency, a measure designed to stabilize the economy and centralize royal control.
• Legal Reforms:** Enacting and enforcing new laws to improve governance.
• Control of Powerful Clans:** Taking steps to curb the influence of powerful local clans (hojok) that had accumulated significant power.
• Bureaucratic Selection:** Reforming the selection process for government officials by emphasizing the Gwageo examination and a recommendation system, thereby promoting new, merit-based bureaucrats.

Yun Kwan also played a crucial role in managing Goryeo's relations with the Jurchen tribes inhabiting the Hallyeonjeon (曷懶甸) region, which stretched from south of the Macheollyeong Mountains to north of Jeongpyeong County. These Jurchen tribes frequently traded their local products for essential goods at Goryeo's border. While some Jurchen chiefs acknowledged Goryeo as their suzerain and paid tribute, receiving official titles (musangye) or local posts (hyangjik) in return, Goryeo also granted land (tuhwajeon) to Jurchens who surrendered and settled within its borders.

Early in Sukjong's reign, Yun Kwan personally met with Jurchen chiefs, acting as the king's representative to bestow official positions upon them. However, around 1106, the Jurchen tribes began to unify under the leadership of Wanyan Wuyashu (우야소_Uya-so^Korean, 烏雅束^Japanese) and started planning attacks against Goryeo. By 1103, Wuyashu's forces had advanced close to Hamheung, leading to a tense standoff with Goryeo's military. The following year, Wanyan cavalry infiltrated areas outside Jeongjugwan. From 1103 onwards, public sentiment within Goryeo increasingly favored a punitive expedition against the Jurchens, a stance firmly supported by Yun Kwan. This growing call for Jurchen subjugation in the latter half of Sukjong's reign was driven not only by the rising power of the Jurchens and their incursions into Goryeo's northeastern territories but also by internal political dynamics.

In 1104, when the Jurchens launched an invasion, Yun Kwan was appointed Dongbukmyeon Byeongma Haengyeongsa (東北面兵馬行營使) and led Goryeo's first expedition against them. This campaign, however, ended in failure, and Goryeo was forced to conclude a temporary peace treaty due to the unfavorable military situation.

5. Jurchen Campaigns and Northern Expansion

Yun Kwan's military career is most notably defined by his campaigns against the Jurchen tribes and the subsequent establishment of the Nine Fortresses.

The Jurchen tribes, who resided north of Goryeo, had historically paid tribute to the Goryeo kings. However, they grew increasingly powerful and unified under the Wanyan clan. They began to violate the Goryeo-Jurchen borders, eventually launching invasions into Goryeo territory. At this time, Goryeo's army was not particularly strong, partly due to a century of relative peace. King Sukjong ordered all available soldiers into battle against the Jurchen invaders, but these efforts ended in defeat. General Yun Kwan, however, managed to negotiate with the Jurchen leaders, convincing them to withdraw their troops and ending the immediate invasion.

After experiencing the Jurchen invasion, Yun Kwan recognized Goryeo's critical lack of effective cavalry units. He requested and received permission from King Sukjong to reorganize and train the Goryeo military into a professional army, specifically emphasizing the development of well-trained cavalry. This led to the creation of the Byeolmuban (별무반_Byeolmuban^Korean, 別武班^Japanese), a special military unit proposed by Yun Kwan during Sukjong's reign to counter the Jurchen threat, particularly their formidable cavalry. The Byeolmuban was composed of:

• Shin-gi (신기_Shin-gi^Korean, 神騎^Japanese): Cavalry units, formed by conscripting all men nationwide who owned horses.
• Shin-bo (신보_Shin-bo^Korean, 神歩^Japanese): Infantry units, comprising all men aged 20 or older who had not passed the Gwageo civil service examination.
• Monks were also organized into military units and incorporated into the force.

The Byeolmuban functioned as a regular army and underwent rigorous training year-round.

6. Political Strife and Later Years

Despite his military successes, Yun Kwan faced significant political challenges and court intrigue during his later years.

7. Legacy and Historical Assessment

Yun Kwan's contributions to Goryeo are highly esteemed, particularly his success in repelling the Jurchen tribes and establishing the Nine Fortresses, which significantly bolstered the kingdom's northern defense capabilities. His military campaigns are seen as a crucial step in fulfilling Goryeo's northern expansion policy. Despite his later political struggles and the eventual return of the fortresses, there is a prevailing sense of sympathy for his final years, during which he was stripped of his Gongsin title and faced an unfortunate end.

The return of the Nine Fortresses, while a strategic setback for Goryeo, is often viewed as a pragmatic decision by the court. This was due to the kingdom's exhaustion from prolonged warfare, the logistical difficulties of maintaining distant garrisons, and the growing public resentment over forced military mobilization. Historians also note that the Jurchens' recovery of these fortresses provided a vital foundation for Agolta (아골타_Agolta^Korean), who would later establish the powerful Jin dynasty. The rise of the Jin dynasty subsequently isolated Goryeo, hindering its trade with the Song dynasty and other neighboring nations, which ultimately contributed to the weakening of the kingdom.

The exact extent of Yun Kwan's military campaigns and the precise locations of the Nine Fortresses have been a subject of historical dispute for centuries. While the traditional belief places them in present-day Hamheung, North Korea, some historical sources indicate that Yun Kwan temporarily claimed parts of Manchuria for Goryeo, thereby reclaiming ancestral lands of Goguryeo.

Yun Kwan is considered a pivotal figure in the history of the Papyeong Yun clan. His ennoblement as Yeongpyeong (Papyeong) Baek led his descendants to adopt Papyeong as their bon-gwan (ancestral seat), solidifying the clan's historical identity and prominence.

His posthumous name was Mun-suk (문숙_Mun-suk^Korean, 文肅^Japanese). Initially, his posthumous name was Mun-gyeong (문경_Mun-gyeong^Korean, 文敬^Japanese), but it was changed during the reign of King Injong to avoid a naming taboo, as it was the same as Queen Mun-gyeong (Mun-gyeong Wangtaehu), King Yejong's consort. In 1130, the eighth year of Injong's reign, Yun Kwan was enshrined in King Yejong's royal shrine (Myojeong), a high honor. He was also sometimes revered as a deity in Korean shamanism.

Yun Kwan was also known for his calligraphy, though many of his written works and epitaphs have been lost. A notable anecdote involves his son, Yun Ŏn-i, who developed an antagonistic relationship with the prominent scholar Kim Bu-sik after Kim arbitrarily modified the epitaph Yun Kwan had written for the National Preceptor Uicheon.

8. Family and Descendants

Yun Kwan's family played a significant role in Goryeo and later in the Joseon dynasty, with many of his descendants holding influential positions and marrying into the royal family.

• Grandfather:** Yun Geum-gang (윤금강_{Yun Geum-gang}^Korean), who served as Sangseo Jwabokya. His grandmothers were Lady Jeong of Naju or Lady Wang of Gaeseong, with Lady Jeong presumed to be his paternal grandmother.
• Father:** Yun Chip-hyŏng (윤집형_{Yun Chip-hyŏng}^Korean).
• Wife:** Lady Yi of the Incheon Yi clan (인천 이씨_{Incheon Yi clan}^Korean), daughter of Sangjanggun (上將軍) Yi Seong-gan (이성간_{Yi Seong-gan}^Korean). Yi Seong-gan was a grand-nephew of Yi Heo-gyeom (李許謙), Duke of Soseonggun (소성군개국백).
• Children:** Yun Kwan had five sons and two daughters. Two of his sons became monks.
  • Son:** Yun Ŏn-in (윤언인_{Yun Ŏn-in}^Korean, 尹彦仁^Japanese), who served as Hapmun Jihu. His descendants include the Namwon Yun clan and Haman Yun clan.
    • Grandson:** Yun Deok-cheom (윤덕첨_{Yun Deok-cheom}^Korean), Jeonjungsi Naegeupsa.
  • Son:** Yun Ŏn-sun (윤언순_{Yun Ŏn-sun}^Korean, 尹彦純^Japanese), who served as Si-eosa (侍御史) and later as Namwonbusa (南原府使) during King Yejong's reign.
    • Grandson:** Yun Jung-cheom (윤중첨_{Yun Jung-cheom}^Korean).
  • Son:** Yun Ŏn-sik (윤언식_{Yun Ŏn-sik}^Korean, 尹彦植^Japanese; died May 1149), who served as Sangseo Jwabokya. He was known for his noble and elegant character and his fondness for guests. His daughter-in-law, Lady Ryu of Hagwon-gun (하원군군 류씨), was the sister of Queen Myeongui, King Sukjong's consort, a connection believed to have contributed to Yun Kwan's advancement in court.
  • Son:** Yun Ŏn-i (윤언이_{Yun Ŏn-i}^Korean, 尹彦頤^Japanese; died May 1149), who attained the position of Jeongdang Munhak and was posthumously named Mun-gang. His biography is recorded in the Goryeosa. His lineage produced several prominent figures and royal consorts during the Joseon dynasty.
    • Grandson:** Yun In-cheom (윤인첨_{Yun In-cheom}^Korean), who became Sutae-sa and was posthumously named Mun-jeong.
    • Grandson:** Yun Ja-go (윤자고_{Yun Ja-go}^Korean), a Gukjagam Baksa.
    • Grandson:** Yun Don-sin (윤돈신_{Yun Don-sin}^Korean), an Ibushirang.
    • Grandson:** Yun Ja-yang (윤자양_{Yun Ja-yang}^Korean).
    • Grandson:** Yun Don-ui (윤돈의_{Yun Don-ui}^Korean).
    • Grandson:** Yun Don-hyo (윤돈효_{Yun Don-hyo}^Korean).
    • Granddaughters:** Four daughters.
  • Son:** Yun Ŏn-min (윤언민_{Yun Ŏn-min}^Korean, 尹彦旼^Japanese; 1095 - April 23, 1154, or March 9 by lunar calendar), with the courtesy name Iljang (日章). He was known for his intelligence and skill in calligraphy and painting, serving as Sangsikbong-eo during King Injong's reign.
  • Daughter:** Lady Yun of the Papyeong Yun clan, who married Hwang Won-do (황원도).
  • Daughter:** Lady Yun of the Papyeong Yun clan, who married Im Won-hu (임원후_{Im Won-hu}^Korean; 1089-1156).

  8.1. Notable Descendants and Royal Connections

  Yun Kwan's lineage became deeply intertwined with the royal families of both Goryeo and Joseon.

  • From the lineage of his first son, Yun Eon-in, Deposed Queen Yun (폐비 윤씨_{Pyebi Yunssi}^Korean), a consort of King Seongjong, was an 11th-generation descendant of Yun Kwan.
  • From the lineage of his fourth son, Yun Eon-i, several prominent figures and royal consorts emerged:
    • Queen Huibi Yun (희비 윤씨_{Huibi Yunssi}^Korean), a consort of King Chunghye, was an 8th-generation descendant of Yun Kwan. Her father was Yun Gye-jong (윤계종), son of Yeongpyeong-gun Yun Bo (윤보), who descended from Yun Eon-i through Yun Don-sin.
    • Queen Jeonghui (정희왕후_{Jeonghui Wanghu}^Korean), consort of King Sejo, was an 11th-generation descendant of Yun Kwan. Her father was Jeongjeonggong Yun Beon (윤번), a son of Pando Panseo (版圖判書) Yun Seung-nye (윤승례), who was a descendant of Yun Eon-i.
    • Queen Jeonghyeon (정현왕후_{Jeonghyeon Wanghu}^Korean), consort of King Seongjong, was a 13th-generation descendant of Yun Kwan. Her father was Yun Ho (윤호), a descendant of Yun Eon-i through Yun Gon (윤곤).
    • Queen Janggyeong (장경왕후_{Janggyeong Wanghu}^Korean), consort of King Jungjong, was a 14th-generation descendant of Yun Kwan. Her father was Yun Yeo-pil (윤여필), a descendant of Yun Eon-i through Yun Beon's second son, Yun Sa-yun.
    • Queen Munjeong (문정왕후_{Munjeong Wanghu}^Korean), consort of King Jungjong, was a 15th-generation descendant of Yun Kwan. Her father was Yun Ji-im (윤지임), a descendant of Yun Eon-i through Yun Beon's third son, Yun Sa-heun.
    • Royal Noble Consort Sukbin Yun (숙빈 윤씨_{Sukbin Yunssi}^Korean), a consort of King Injong, was a 16th-generation descendant of Yun Kwan, being the daughter of Yun Won-nyang (윤원량), one of Yun Ji-im's sons.

9. Tomb Dispute and Traditions

Yun Kwan's tomb is located at San 4-1, Bunsu-ri, Gwangtan-myeon, Paju, Gyeonggi Province, and is designated as Historic Site No. 323. However, its location was lost for centuries due to wars and invasions until the 18th century. When it was rediscovered, it was found near a tomb belonging to the Cheongsong Sim clan. This proximity ignited a centuries-long family feud, known as Sansong (산송_sansong^Korean, literally "mountain dispute"), between the Papyeong Yun clan and the Cheongsong Sim clan, lasting nearly 400 years.

The dispute escalated in 1614 when Sim Ji-won (심지원_{Sim Ji-won}^Korean), who served as Yeonguijeong (영의정, Chief State Councillor), allegedly disturbed Yun Kwan's tomb to establish his own family's graves there. In retaliation, the Papyeong Yun clan partially dug up Sim Ji-won's tomb in 1763 and demanded that the Cheongsong Sim clan be punished. The local military commander of Goyang, where the tombs were located, was reluctant to intervene in a dispute between two powerful noble families, both of whom had produced multiple queens for the Joseon royal court. The matter was thus referred to the central government.

King Yeongjo, recognizing the immense influence of both clans, attempted to mediate the dispute. He urged them to reach an agreement and decreed that both tombs should remain in their current locations. However, the Papyeong Yun clan refused to accept this resolution, continuing to demand the relocation of Sim Ji-won's tomb. This defiance led to members of the Yun clan being flogged and exiled, with some even dying during their exile, further deepening the animosity between the two families. Despite numerous efforts over the centuries, the dispute remained unresolved.

Finally, on April 10, 2006 (by the lunar calendar), the grand clan associations (Daejonghoe) of the Papyeong Yun clan and the Cheongsong Sim clan reached a historic agreement. The Papyeong Yun clan agreed to provide alternative land for relocation, and in return, the Cheongsong Sim clan committed to moving 19 ancestral tombs from Yun Kwan's tomb site. This landmark agreement brought an end to the 392-year-long tomb dispute.