Ulrich von Jungingen

2.1. Early Life and Entry into the Teutonic Order

Ulrich von Jungingen was born around 1360, a scion of the Swabian noble house of Jungingen. It is believed he was born at Hohenfels Castle, near Stockach, as the family's ancestral seat at Jungingen had been devastated in 1311. As a younger son, Ulrich, like his elder brother Konrad von Jungingen, was excluded from direct family succession. Consequently, both brothers took the vow of the Teutonic Knights and relocated to the Prussian territories of the Order's State.

2.2. Rise within the Order

Ulrich von Jungingen began his career within the Teutonic Order by residing in Schlochau (modern-day Człuchów). He steadily advanced through the Order's ranks, serving as the Komtur (Commander) of Balga from 1396 to 1404. His professional ascent benefited significantly from the patronage of his elder brother Konrad, who had been elected Grand Master in 1393. Ulrich demonstrated early diplomatic skills. After the Knights successfully expelled the Victual Brothers from Gotland in 1398, Ulrich distinguished himself in the subsequent negotiations for the possession of the island with Queen Margaret I of Denmark. He also undertook important diplomatic missions to both Poland and Lithuania, which were instrumental in the conclusion of the 1398 Treaty of Salynas, primarily concerning the status of the Duchy of Samogitia. In 1404, Ulrich was appointed the Order's Marshal, a crucial military leadership position, and simultaneously became the Komtur of Königsberg. In this capacity, he was responsible for dealing with several Samogitian uprisings, which he suppressed through a combination of strict military actions and strategic bribery of local nobles.

2.3. Grand Mastership and Policies

Upon the sudden death of Grand Master Konrad von Jungingen in 1407, Ulrich was chosen as his successor on June 26. Unlike his brother, Ulrich's diplomatic abilities were limited, which significantly impacted his approach to foreign policy. The situation in Samogitia remained highly volatile, continually incited by Grand Duke Vytautas, who sought to exploit the unrest to regain the territories that had been ceded to the Order. Furthermore, the new Grand Master inherited a deepening conflict with Vytautas's cousin, King Jagiełło of Poland, primarily concerning the Dobrzyń Land and the pawned Neumark region. The Polish ambassador, Archbishop Mikołaj Kurowski, explicitly warned Ulrich that any attack on Lithuania would inevitably lead to an armed conflict with Poland. Despite the clear threat of a potential two-front war, Ulrich von Jungingen made the fateful decision to prepare for a preemptive strike. He forged an alliance with King Sigismund of Hungary and began levying mercenaries from across the Holy Roman Empire. On August 6, 1409, Ulrich officially declared war against the Kingdom of Poland, initiating the Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War.

2.4. Battle of Grunwald and Death

Despite his preparations for a preemptive strike, Ulrich von Jungingen received no direct military assistance from his ally King Sigismund of Hungary, who was preoccupied with a conflict with his cousin, Jobst of Moravia, over the election as King of the Romans. Initially, the Order's forces achieved some success, campaigning in Dobrzyń and Kuyavia and laying siege to Bydgoszcz. Sigismund's brother, King Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia, attempted to mediate between the belligerents and arranged a temporary truce, though these efforts ultimately failed to achieve a lasting resolution. On July 2, 1410, Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen led his army out of Malbork Castle, marching towards what would become the decisive final battle against the combined Polish and Lithuanian forces. Both armies converged on July 15, 1410, between the villages of Grunwald (known as Grünfelde in German) and Stębark (known as Tannenberg).

As noontide approached, neither army made a move. According to the annals of the Polish chronicler Jan Długosz, Ulrich von Jungingen dispatched two swords to King Jagiełło, remarking that both he and Vytautas could live or die by them. This act was widely perceived as a bold and arrogant provocation, which subsequently spurred the Polish-Lithuanian attack. The Teutonic Knights initially repulsed the first assault, but a second, more powerful strike by Jagiełło's forces soon followed. The tide of the battle dramatically shifted after Ulrich, confident of an impending victory, made the critical decision to personally lead his remaining regiments into battle against the Polish troops. While he nearly managed to engage the king himself, this direct involvement caused him to lose overall strategic oversight of the Order's military operations. Further weakening his position, the allied Prussian forces of the Lizard Union, led by Nicholas von Renys, broke away from the main Teutonic lines. Facing the significantly superior numbers of the Polish-Lithuanian union, Ulrich's forces were overwhelmed. When Lithuanian units attacked him from the rear, Ulrich's troops were completely routed, and he was killed in action. According to Jan Długosz, he was encountered and defeated by the Polish knight Mszczuj of Skrzynno. Following the battle, King Jagiełło arranged for the transportation of Ulrich von Jungingen's body back to Malbork Castle before commencing the Siege of Marienburg.

3.1. Diverse Interpretations and Perspectives

Based on the detailed descriptions by chronicler Jan Długosz, later generations have frequently characterized Ulrich von Jungingen as hot-blooded, arrogant, and prone to miscalculation. This perspective is famously illustrated in Jan Matejko's monumental 1878 painting, Battle of Grunwald. The painting dramatically depicts the moment of Ulrich's death, showing him, dressed in white with the distinctive black cross of the Order, attempting to attack Grand Duke Vytautas, only to be struck down by two Polish infantrymen, one wielding an executioner's axe and the other a replica of the Holy Lance, a symbol reminiscent of the Congress of Gniezno.

This critical portrayal was further cemented in popular culture by Henryk Sienkiewicz's influential 1900 novel, The Knights of the Cross. Sienkiewicz's narrative, drawing parallels to the oppressive measures of the Russian Empire in Vistula Land during his time, depicts Ulrich as an impulsive and aggressively authoritarian commander. This literary characterization significantly influenced public perception and was later translated to the screen in Aleksander Ford's 1960 film, Knights of the Teutonic Order.

Conversely, 19th-century German historiography often presented a different image of Ulrich von Jungingen. This narrative, seeking to valorize him within a context of German nationalism, portrayed him as a figure of chivalric virtues who, despite his nobility, tragically succumbed to the cunning and numerical superiority of his enemies. This perspective is notably reflected in author Ernst Wichert's novel, Heinrich von Plauen, which sought to reclaim a more heroic image for the Grand Master.

3.2. Memorials and Commemoration

The historical significance of Ulrich von Jungingen's death and the Battle of Grunwald is marked by several memorials and ongoing commemorations. In 1413, Ulrich's successor, Heinrich von Plauen, commissioned the erection of a lady chapel on the former battlefield. However, this chapel was likely destroyed by forces of the Lipka Tatars or Crimean Tatars who campaigned in the region in 1656.

In 1901, a glacial erratic, commonly referred to as the Jungingenstein, was set up on the battlefield at the behest of the German authorities in the Province of East Prussia. This monument was intended to commemorate a "hero's death in the struggle for German spirit and German law," reflecting the nationalistic interpretations of the era. While the stone remains in its original place, it has since toppled over, rendering its inscription unreadable. More recently, a second, modern memorial stone has been placed nearby, explicitly marking the location of Jungingen's death with the inscription: "Miejsce śmierci Wielkiego Mistrza Ulricha von Jungingena" (Place of death of Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen). The surrounding area of the Grunwald battlefield is now the site of an annual historical reenactment, which draws numerous visitors and serves as a major commemoration of the battle and its key figures, including Ulrich von Jungingen.