1. Early Life and Background
Sharof Rashidov's early life was rooted in the rural realities of Uzbekistan, shaped by humble beginnings and a pursuit of education that laid the groundwork for his future political ascent.
1.1. Birth and Family
Rashidov was born on November 6, 1917 (October 24, 1917 Old Style), coincidentally the day before the October Revolution, in the village of Sovungarlik, located in what is now the Jizzakh Region of Uzbekistan. He hailed from an Uzbek peasant family. Despite their poverty, both of his parents, Rashid Khalilov and Kuysinoy, were among the few literate individuals in their community at the time. They strongly emphasized education for their six children. His father, Rashid Khalilov, was a farmer who joined the Qizil karvon collective farm.
1.2. Education
Rashidov pursued an academic path despite his modest background. After graduating from the Jizzakh Pedagogical College in 1935, he went on to study at the philological faculty of Samarkand State University, completing his studies in 1941. His educational pursuits continued even during his professional career; he graduated in absentia from the All-Union Party School under the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1948.
1.3. World War II Service
Rashidov's education was interrupted by World War II. In 1941, he was deployed to the Eastern Front as a junior lieutenant. He saw combat, including participation in the Battle of Moscow. During his service, he was wounded multiple times and was eventually severely injured, leading to his demobilization in 1943. For his military service, he was awarded two Order of the Red Star decorations.
2. Early Career
Upon returning from military service, Rashidov embarked on a career in education and journalism before transitioning into high-level political roles.
2.1. Teacher, Journalist, and Editor
Initially, after graduating from the Jizzakh Pedagogical College in 1935, Rashidov began his professional life as a schoolteacher in a secondary school. He then transitioned into journalism, working for the regional Samarkand newspaper Leninsky put. Following his demobilization from the war in 1943, he continued his work in the press, serving as the editor of the Lenin yoli newspaper in Samarkand from 1943 to 1944. He then served as secretary of the Samarkand regional committee from 1944 to 1947. From 1947 to 1949, he held the position of executive editor for the newspaper Qizil Oʻzbekistoni.
3. Political Career
Rashidov's career steadily progressed within the Soviet political system, culminating in his long tenure as the de facto leader of the Uzbek SSR.
3.1. Rise within the Uzbek SSR
Rashidov began his career as a deputy in the Supreme Soviet of the Uzbek SSR in 1947, serving in this capacity for its 2nd through 9th convocations. His influence within the Communist Party also grew; he served as a delegate to the 19th through 24th Congresses of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. In 1949, he assumed the role of chairman of the board of the Union of Writers of the Uzbek SSR. His ascent continued rapidly when, in 1950, he was elected chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Uzbek SSR, a position he held for nearly a decade until 1959. In 1956, he became a candidate member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party, and by 1961, he was a full member of the Central Committee and a candidate member of the Presidium of the Central Committee.
3.2. First Secretary of the Communist Party of Uzbekistan
In March 1959, Sharof Rashidov was appointed the First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Uzbekistan. This position made him the de facto leader of the republic, a role he maintained with firm control until his death in 1983. His leadership marked a distinct period for the Uzbek SSR, characterized by significant developmental shifts and a unique relationship with Moscow.
4. Leadership of Uzbekistan
Under Rashidov's leadership, Uzbekistan underwent significant transformations, impacting its political landscape, economic development, international relations, and cultural identity.
4.1. Politics and Governance
Rashidov emerged as the de facto leader of the Samarkand faction in Uzbek politics, a position that frequently put him in rivalry with other regional factions, particularly the Tashkent faction. Following his rise to power in 1959, he initiated a series of purges, removing politicians aligned with the Tashkent faction from key leadership positions across the Uzbek SSR. In 1969, an attempt to depose him was made by influential figures including Yadgar Nasriddinova of the Tashkent faction, Rafiq Nishonov of the Fergana faction, and Rahmonqul Qurbonov of the Bukhara faction. They tried to use an anti-Russian rally at a sports event as a pretext to convince Moscow to remove him. However, Rashidov successfully countered this plot, and the instigators subsequently lost their influence in Uzbek SSR politics; Nasriddinova and Nishonov were reassigned to union-level positions, while Qurbonov faced imprisonment.
Rashidov enjoyed strong political backing from Leonid Brezhnev, who was the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. This close relationship was crucial, as Brezhnev not only allocated substantial resources to industrialization projects within the Uzbek SSR but also shielded Rashidov from investigations into his administration's practices. Consequently, the Uzbek SSR maintained an exceptionally high degree of autonomy compared to other Soviet republics for decades. While other Soviet politicians often feared the pervasive reach of the KGB and the Communist Party apparatus, these very institutions within the Uzbek SSR found themselves under Rashidov's influence. His exceptional ties to Brezhnev allowed him to deviate significantly from standard party norms. Individuals who voiced disagreement with Rashidov faced severe retaliation. He built an extensive network of informers and employed a "divide and conquer" strategy to ensure the unwavering loyalty of his associates. His authoritarian control over the republic was so absolute that opponents often compared him to a Khan, a ruler of the previous century.
4.2. Economic Development and Projects
During Rashidov's tenure, the Uzbek SSR experienced rapid economic growth, driven by significant industrialization and urbanization alongside its established agricultural sector. The Tashkent Mechanical Plant, also known as the Tashkent Aviation Production Association named after V.P. Chkalov, grew to become one of the largest aircraft producers globally. In 1969, the Muruntau mine commenced gold extraction, quickly becoming one of the most vital gold mines in the Soviet Union.
Following the devastating 1966 Tashkent earthquake, the city of Tashkent underwent a massive rebuilding effort and experienced significant urbanization. This period saw the construction of the Tashkent Metro-the first metro system in Central Asia in 1977-and the expansion of the city, alongside numerous other socially oriented construction projects throughout the republic.
However, not all projects under Rashidov's leadership were without controversy. One such initiative was the Mubarek zone, a plan intended to encourage exiled Crimean Tatars to "take root" in the desolate Mubarek district of the Qashqadaryo Region. This district's environment was starkly different and far less hospitable than the coastal Crimean homeland the Crimean Tatars longed for. Most Crimean Tatars came to view the project as another one of Rashidov's schemes designed to extract money from Moscow, and they found the suggestions that any part of Central Asia was their "real" homeland to be chauvinistic and insulting.
4.3. Diplomacy
Rashidov actively participated in international relations, leveraging his position to strengthen diplomatic ties and play a role in global events. In 1957, he accompanied Kliment Voroshilov on a diplomatic tour that included visits to Indonesia, Myanmar, China, and Vietnam, where he engaged with leaders of various anti-colonial movements. In 1962, Rashidov was part of a Soviet delegation dispatched to Cuba by Nikita Khrushchev in the prelude to the Cuban Missile Crisis, although his initial visits to Cuba primarily focused on agricultural cooperation.
His diplomatic efforts were particularly instrumental during the Indo-Pakistani war of 1965. Rashidov played a significant role in organizing the peace talks held in Tashkent, which led to the signing of the Tashkent Declaration peace agreement in 1966. While Alexei Kosygin officially led the negotiations, Rashidov was deeply involved in facilitating the peace process. During the Soviet-Afghan War, Rashidov actively supported the Soviet-backed government by welcoming Afghan students to study at universities in the Uzbek SSR and frequently corresponding with government bodies of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, emphasizing his support for their endeavors.
4.4. Cultural Policy and Development
Under Rashidov's leadership, significant efforts were made to foster cultural development and preserve historical heritage within Uzbekistan, shaping its national identity and artistic expression.
After the 1966 earthquake, the capital city of Tashkent was not only rebuilt but also enhanced with the construction of new museums, parks, theaters, and monuments. In 1970, the 2500th anniversary of Samarkand was celebrated with grand events, including the opening of a museum dedicated to the city's history and an opera and ballet theater. The year 1977 marked a milestone with the opening of the Tashkent Metro, the first subway system in Central Asia.
In 1969, an international symposium focused on the history of Timurid art was held in Samarkand, underscoring the region's rich artistic legacy. The 1000th anniversary of the renowned scholar Al-Biruni was widely celebrated in 1973, which included the production of a feature film dedicated to his life.
The number of research institutes in Uzbekistan expanded considerably under Rashidov, increasing from 64 in 1960 to 100 by the early 1980s. He also initiated the establishment of the first Institute of Archaeology in Central Asia, which opened in Samarkand in 1970. Education received considerable attention, with a notable increase in student enrollment; by 1970, there were 192 students for every 10,000 people in Uzbekistan.
Rashidov's administration supported the film industry, leading to the production of three major historical film series between 1970 and 1980: "Ulugbek's Treasures" (based on Odil Yoqubov's work), a 10-part video film "Alisher Navoi" (based on Aybek's novel), and a 17-part series "Roads of Fire" (based on Komil Yashin's novel). For the first time, large feature historical films were made about the geniuses of world science born in the territory of modern Uzbekistan, such as "Youth of Genius" about Avicenna and "The Star of Ulugbek" about Ulugh Beg.
The field of animation also saw development, with a cartoon production workshop established at the Uzbekfilm studio in 1966. The first Uzbek drawn cartoon, "Brave Sparrow," was released in 1968. By the mid-1970s, the animation workshop evolved into a dedicated union for puppet and drawn cartoons, producing works like "The Ballad of the Falcon and the Star" by Mavzur Mahmudov, "Lake in the Desert" by Nazim Tulahojaev, and "Hoja Nasreddin."
Rashidov was a proactive patron of young poets and writers in Uzbekistan. During his leadership, prominent literary figures such as Erkin Vohidov, author of the poem "O'zbegim," and Abdulla Oripov, known for his poem "O'zbekiston," gained prominence in Uzbek culture.
Several important museums were opened, including the Alisher Navoi State Museum of Literature, the Sadriddin Ayni House Museum, the Abu Ali Ibn Sina Museum in Afshona, and the Lenin Museum in Tashkent. In 1980, on Rashidov's initiative, the 100th anniversary of the Uzbek and Tajik poet Orif Gulhani was celebrated with the opening of the Gulhani Museum in Samarkand. A key aspect of his cultural policy was the creation of three significant museum-reserves: "Itchan Kala" in Khiva (1968), the Samarkand United Historical-Architectural and Art Museum-Reserve (1982), and the Bukhara State Architectural Art Museum-Preserve (1983), which played a crucial role in historical preservation.
Under Rashidov's guidance, historians collaborated to write and publish a comprehensive four-volume "History of Uzbekistan" in both Uzbek and Russian languages between 1967 and 1970. After his death, multi-volume general histories of Uzbekistan ceased publication, with only separate volumes on individual periods being released.
5. Corruption and Controversies
Despite the economic and cultural progress during his leadership, Rashidov's tenure was marred by widespread corruption and significant controversies, notably involving nepotism and the massive cotton scandal.
5.1. Nepotism and Patronage
Rashidov extensively practiced nepotism and patronage, appointing relatives and loyalists to key government positions, which consolidated his power base and contributed to systemic corruption. While the CPSU was aware of Rashidov's corruption, they initially chose to overlook it. However, a deluge of complaint letters sent to central bodies, detailing widespread corruption and bribery in the Uzbek SSR, eventually prompted a more serious investigation by the central government into Rashidov and his cadres.
He was summoned by Yegor Ligachyov, who presented him with stacks of letters from Uzbek citizens complaining about his corruption. Rashidov, reportedly defiant, asked Ligachev who he thought he was. Ligachev responded that he was acting on behalf of Yuri Andropov, to which Rashidov dismissed the letters as slander. Ligachev then informed him that he was subject to investigation, assuring him he would have "nothing to worry about" if the allegations were false.
In total, Rashidov placed at least fourteen of his relatives in important governmental roles within the Uzbek SSR, though the precise number of relatives across various government levels remains unclear. For example, his son Ilkhom was married to the daughter of Qallibek Kamolov, who was the First Secretary of the Karakalpak ASSR. One of Rashidov's daughters was married to the nephew of Ibrohim Muminov of the Bukhara faction, who held the post of vice president of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR, further solidifying ties between the Samarkand and Bukhara political groupings. His brother Sahib served as the head of the People's Inspectorate, and his wife's nephew was the rector of the Tashkent Medical Institute.
5.2. The Cotton Scandal and Environmental Impact
The most significant controversy of Rashidov's rule was the Uzbek cotton scandal, also known as the "Cotton Affair" or "Cotton Mafia," which involved the systematic falsification of cotton production figures and led to profound ecological and social consequences. Moscow had imposed increasingly high quotas for cotton production on the Uzbek SSR. In response, Rashidov's government reported artificially inflated statistics regarding irrigated and harvested land, claiming record improvements in production and efficiency. However, there was a vast disparity between the claimed cotton output and what was actually produced.
This intense drive to increase cotton production played a major role in the ecological devastation of the republic, particularly in the Karakalpakstan region. Rivers that fed the Aral Sea were extensively diverted to irrigate the rapidly expanding cotton fields, causing the sea to drastically recede and shrink. As the ecological situation worsened, actual cotton production began to decline, yet Moscow continued to demand more cotton based on the false figures. An intricate system of tribute, bribes, and forgery was employed to maintain the illusion of fulfilling cotton quotas. The Uzbek leadership utilized these exaggerated figures to siphon substantial amounts of wealth from central Soviet funds into the Uzbek SSR and the Rashidov family's coffers. Leonid Brezhnev, then Soviet leader, reportedly turned a blind eye to the situation, partly because his own son-in-law was implicated in the scandal.
After Brezhnev's death, Yuri Andropov, who had been aware of the scheme, initiated a campaign to dismantle the "cotton mafia," leading to the official acknowledgment of the scandal. The repercussions included a major purge of Uzbek leadership, with arrests, executions, and suicides, though the full extent of the corruption, especially regarding involvement at the highest levels in Moscow, was never fully revealed. This scandal cemented Uzbekistan's association with corruption in the minds of many across the Soviet Union, despite the prevalence of corruption elsewhere.
6. Personal Life
Beyond his political and controversial public life, Sharof Rashidov maintained a private life characterized by family ties and personal views on religion, typical of a Soviet-era leader.
6.1. Family
Sharof Rashidov was married to Khursanda G'furovna Rashidova, and they had five children. His family connections extended deeply into the political and administrative fabric of the Uzbek SSR, contributing to the system of nepotism that characterized his rule. As previously mentioned, his son Ilkhom married the daughter of Qallibek Kamolov, the First Secretary of the Karakalpak ASSR, and one of his daughters married into the influential Muminov family of the Bukhara faction, reinforcing political alliances.
6.2. Views on Religion
As a Soviet leader, Rashidov maintained a secular lifestyle and publicly identified as an atheist, referring to religion as superstition. However, unlike some of his predecessors, he was remarkably tolerant of religious practices and institutions within the republic. He not only allowed for the development of religious institutions but also permitted public celebrations of a religious nature. This approach helped establish Tashkent as a key center of Islam within the Soviet Union. A notable event was a major international conference held in Tashkent in September 1980, commemorating the anniversary of the Hijra. Furthermore, during his tenure, many mosques that had been converted for secular purposes by previous administrations, such as gyms and warehouses, were restored to their original function.
7. Literary Works
Beyond his political career, Sharof Rashidov was also a published author, contributing to Uzbek literature with poems and novels. His literary output began before his rise to the highest political office and continued during his leadership.
His first work, the epic poem "Chegarachi" (The Border Guard), was published in 1937. In 1945, he released a collection of poems focusing on the themes of the Great Patriotic War (World War II). This was followed by the short story "Gʻoliblar" (The Winners), which explored the development of unused lands. Rashidov also authored several novels, including "Boʻrondan kuchli" (Stronger Than the Storm), published in 1958; "Qudratli toʻlqin" (Mighty Wave), published in 1964; and a longer version of "Gʻoliblar", published in 1972.
8. Death and Legacy
Sharof Rashidov's death was shrouded in controversy, leading to a complex and shifting posthumous evaluation of his rule, which continues to shape perceptions of his legacy in Uzbekistan.
8.1. Circumstances of Death
Rashidov died on October 31, 1983, while on a visit to the Karakalpak ASSR. Most sources indicate that he died of a heart attack, with many suggesting that the immense stress from the ongoing, high-profile corruption investigation into his administration played a significant role in his demise. However, some accounts have alleged that his death was a suicide, an act taken to avoid facing severe corruption charges and the public humiliation that would ensue. He was succeeded as First Secretary by Inomjon Usmonxoʻjayev.
8.2. Posthumous Evaluation and Rehabilitation
Immediately following his death, Rashidov was initially eulogized and praised. However, this period of official mourning was short-lived. Criticism of Rashidov's rule soon became not only permitted but actively encouraged by senior politicians in both Moscow and Tashkent, particularly as the full scope of the cotton scandal began to emerge. Although he was initially buried in Tashkent's Lenin Square, his remains were disinterred in 1986, after the cotton scandal received more public attention and a period of damnatio memoriae began, and reburied in his hometown of Jizzakh.
Following Uzbekistan's independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, Rashidov's image underwent a significant rehabilitation, largely spearheaded by the country's first President, Islam Karimov. Rashidov was re-evaluated and subsequently celebrated as a symbol of Uzbek nationalism and sovereignty. The Sharof Rashidov District was named in his honor, and a museum dedicated to his memory was established in Jizzakh. While the cotton scandal was viewed as a source of shame by Russians and the broader Soviet public, many Uzbeks, particularly after independence, did not just support Rashidov in spite of the scandal, but rather because of it. For them, the cotton falsifications became reframed as a cunning triumph over Moscow, and his perceived corruption was reinterpreted as a strategic act of defiance that ultimately benefited the republic and served Uzbek national interests. This re-evaluation highlights the complex and often contradictory nature of historical memory, especially in post-Soviet states seeking to redefine their national narratives.
8.3. Criticism and Controversies
Despite his posthumous rehabilitation in independent Uzbekistan, Rashidov's rule remains a subject of considerable criticism and controversy. Critics point to his authoritarian style of leadership, which suppressed dissent and limited democratic development within the Uzbek SSR. The widespread corruption under his regime, particularly exemplified by the cotton scandal, is a major point of contention, highlighting systemic issues of economic mismanagement and abuse of power for personal and factional gain. Furthermore, specific policies and projects undertaken during his leadership, such as the contentious Mubarek zone which negatively impacted minority groups like the Crimean Tatars, draw strong criticism for their disregard for human rights and local concerns. These criticisms offer a balanced perspective, acknowledging the economic and cultural developments while scrutinizing the profound negative consequences of his governing methods.
9. Awards and Honors
Sharof Rashidov received numerous high-level state awards and honors during his extensive political career, recognizing his contributions to the Soviet Union and the Uzbek SSR.
- Twice Hero of Socialist Labour (December 30, 1974, and November 4, 1977)
- Ten Orders of Lenin (January 16, 1950; January 11, 1957; March 1, 1965; November 4, 1967; December 2, 1971; December 10, 1973; December 30, 1974; December 25, 1976; November 4, 1977; and March 6, 1980)
- Order of the October Revolution (March 5, 1982)
- Order of the Red Banner of Labour (December 6, 1951)
- Two Orders of the Red Star (August 28, 1942, and January 23, 1946)
- Order of the Badge of Honour (December 25, 1944)
- Lenin Prize (1980)
- State Prize of the Republic of Uzbekistan named after Alisher Navoi in the field of architecture (awarded posthumously on February 4, 1994)