1. Overview
Flavius Valerius Severus, often referred to as Severus II, was a Roman emperor who reigned briefly from 306 to 307 AD. A key figure during the turbulent period of the Tetrarchy, he initially served as a Caesar in the Western Roman Empire from 305 to 306 under Diocletian and Constantius Chlorus. Upon Constantius Chlorus's death, Severus was elevated to the rank of Augustus, controlling Italy and Western Africa. However, his short reign was largely consumed by a civil war against the usurper Maxentius, who eventually defeated and killed him.
2. Early life and career
Severus's early life and career laid the foundation for his later ascent within the Roman imperial system.
2.1. Birth and background
Flavius Valerius Severus was born into humble circumstances in Illyria, a province in the northern part of the Balkan Peninsula, around the middle of the 3rd century AD. This region was notably a birthplace for many Roman military officers. Despite his modest origins, his nomen (clan name), Valerius, suggests a possible connection to the influential ancient Roman Valerius clan. Limited records exist concerning his family background.
2.2. Military career
Driven by financial necessity, Severus joined the Roman army early in his life. He distinguished himself through his service, rising through the ranks to become a senior officer. During his military career, he forged a close relationship with Galerius, who would later become a powerful emperor. Lactantius, a contemporary historian, recorded that Severus had served faithfully as a paymaster and purveyor for the army, demonstrating his competence and loyalty.
3. Role in the Tetrarchy
Severus's entry into the imperial hierarchy came during a critical juncture for the Tetrarchy, the system of co-rule established by Emperor Diocletian.
On May 1, 305 AD, following the unprecedented retirement of Diocletian and Maximian as Augusti, the Tetrarchy underwent a significant restructuring. Constantius Chlorus and Galerius were elevated to the rank of Augustus. To support Constantius Chlorus in the Western Roman Empire, Severus was appointed as Caesar. This promotion made him the junior colleague to Constantius I, the Augustus of the western half of the empire. Although his appointment was supported by Galerius, Diocletian initially expressed reservations, reportedly questioning Severus's character, calling him "that dancer, that habitual drunkard who turns night into day and day into night." However, Galerius's persistence, citing Severus's loyal service, ultimately led Diocletian to acquiesce. As Caesar, Severus was entrusted with the administration of vital territories, including Italy and Western Africa, regions crucial for the empire's economic and military stability.
4. Augustus, 306-307
Severus's elevation to Augustus was a direct consequence of the sudden death of Constantius Chlorus and the subsequent political maneuvering within the Tetrarchy.
In July 306 AD, Constantius Chlorus died in Eboracum (modern York), Britain. Immediately following his death, Constantius's son, Constantine, was acclaimed as emperor by his soldiers. Simultaneously, Galerius, the Augustus of the Eastern Empire, promoted Severus to the rank of Augustus to succeed Constantius Chlorus. While Galerius acknowledged Constantine's imperial symbols and accepted him into the Tetrarchy, he did so with the stipulation that Constantine would hold the rank of Caesar, technically a lower title than Augustus. Despite this formal hierarchy, Constantine effectively controlled a significant portion of the Western Empire, including Britain, Gaul, and Hispania. This left Severus with control primarily over Italy and Western Africa. Severus's legitimacy as Augustus was questioned by many, as he lacked the broad support from both the military and the populace that Constantine commanded in the West. This lack of widespread backing would prove to be a significant vulnerability in the face of impending challenges.
5. Civil War against Maxentius
Severus's brief reign as Augustus was dominated by a severe internal conflict, the civil war against Maxentius, which ultimately led to his downfall.
In October 306 AD, Maxentius, the son of the retired emperor Maximian, initiated a revolt in Rome, proclaiming himself Princeps (ruler) of Italy. In response, Galerius dispatched Severus to suppress this rebellion. Severus marched from his capital, Mediolanum (modern Milan), towards Rome, leading an army that had previously served under Maximian. Fearing Severus's approach, Maxentius sought the assistance of his father, Maximian, offering him co-rule of the empire. Maximian accepted this offer, returning to power as a co-Augustus. When Severus arrived and laid siege to Rome, his army, composed largely of veterans who had formerly served Maximian, began to defect to Maxentius. Faced with mass desertion, Severus was forced to abandon the siege and retreat to Ravenna, a city renowned for its strong natural defenses and impregnable position.
Maximian, unable to breach Ravenna's defenses, offered Severus a guarantee of safety and humane treatment if he surrendered peacefully. Trusting this promise, Severus capitulated around April 307 AD. However, Maximian's assurance proved false. Severus was taken captive and publicly displayed as a prisoner. He was subsequently imprisoned at Tres Tabernae, a location near modern Cisterna di Latina, close to Rome.
6. Death
The circumstances surrounding Severus's death in 307 AD are somewhat debated among historical sources, but they consistently point to his demise at the hands of Maxentius.
Severus was executed, or compelled to commit suicide, on September 16, 307 AD. Some accounts, including that of Lactantius, suggest that he was permitted to take his own life by opening his veins, a common method of suicide among Roman elites. Other sources indicate that he was simply killed, with some even placing his execution in Ravenna, rather than Tres Tabernae. His death was ordered by Maxentius, possibly in anticipation of or during Galerius's own invasion of Italy, which aimed to suppress Maxentius and Maximian and rescue Severus. However, Galerius's campaign ultimately failed, leaving Severus without hope of liberation. Records show that documents bearing Severus's name were still being issued in September, but news of his death had reached Egypt by December of the same year. Severus's death marked a significant and violent episode in the ongoing political upheavals that characterized the late period of the Tetrarchy.
7. Family
Flavius Valerius Severus was survived by his son, Flavius Severianus. However, the Severan family line faced further tragedy when Flavius Severianus was later executed by Licinius on charges of treason.
8. Assessment
Flavius Valerius Severus's brief and tumultuous reign reflects the inherent instability and political complexities of the Tetrarchy in its later stages. His career highlights the challenges faced by emperors during a period marked by shifting alliances, military desertions, and constant civil strife. Despite his promotion to Augustus by Galerius, Severus struggled to establish widespread legitimacy, particularly in the face of Constantine's popular acclamation and Maxentius's rebellion. His inability to command the loyalty of his troops, many of whom had prior allegiances to Maximian, proved to be his ultimate undoing. Severus's downfall and death were not isolated incidents but rather symptomatic of the broader political fragmentation and power struggles that ultimately led to the collapse of the Tetrarchic system and the rise of a single dominant emperor.