Quintilian

1.1. Birth and Early Life

Quintilian was born around 35 AD in Calagurris (modern-day Calahorra, La Rioja) in Hispania. His father, a well-educated man, sent him to Rome to study rhetoric early in the reign of Nero. While in Rome, Quintilian cultivated a significant relationship with Domitius Afer, a distinguished orator who died in 59 AD. Following the custom for young men with public ambitions, Quintilian adopted Afer as his mentor, observing his speeches and legal arguments in the law courts. Afer was known as a more austere, classical, Ciceronian speaker compared to the popular styles of the time, such as those associated with Seneca the Younger, and he likely inspired Quintilian's profound admiration for Cicero.

1.2. Career Beginnings

Sometime after Afer's death in 59 AD, Quintilian returned to Hispania, possibly to practice law in the provincial courts. However, in 68 AD, he moved back to Rome as part of the retinue of Emperor Galba, Nero's short-lived successor. Quintilian's apparent lack of close advisory ties to Galba likely contributed to his survival following Galba's assassination in 69 AD, amidst the tumultuous Year of the Four Emperors that followed. During this chaotic period, Quintilian opened a public school of rhetoric. Among his notable students were Pliny the Younger, and potentially even Tacitus.

1.3. Public Service and Reputation

Quintilian's reputation grew significantly, leading to imperial recognition. Emperor Vespasian, who generally held less interest in the arts but deeply valued education as a means to cultivate an intelligent and responsible ruling class, recognized Quintilian's contributions. Vespasian appointed him as a public teacher of eloquence and provided him with a state salary, making Quintilian the first public teacher in Rome to receive state support. This financial security freed Quintilian from monetary concerns, allowing him to dedicate more time to his school. In addition to his teaching, he continued to actively participate in the Roman legal system, arguing cases on behalf of various clients in the courts of law.

1.4. Later Life and Retirement

Quintilian retired from public teaching and legal practice in 88 AD, during the reign of Domitian. This retirement was likely prompted by his attainment of financial security and a desire for leisure. Quintilian lived through the reigns of several emperors; while the periods under Vespasian and Titus were relatively peaceful, Domitian's rule became increasingly difficult, marked by cruelty and paranoia. Quintilian wisely distanced himself quietly from the emperor's direct influence. Despite Domitian's volatile nature, he seemingly took no offense, appointing Quintilian as a tutor to his two grand-nephews in 90 AD. These grand-nephews, however, were seen as potential rivals to the unstable emperor and eventually disappeared, highlighting the dangers of Domitian's rule. Quintilian spent his remaining years writing his magnum opus, Institutio Oratoria. He is believed to have died around 100 AD, not long after Domitian's assassination in 96 AD.

1.5. Personal Life

Few details are known about Quintilian's personal life. In his Institutio Oratoria, he makes poignant mentions of a wife who died at a young age, and the profound grief he experienced from the loss of his two sons, both of whom tragically predeceased him.

2.1. Major Works

The sole extant work by Quintilian is a twelve-volume textbook on rhetoric titled Institutio Oratoria (generally translated as Institutes of Oratory), published around 95 AD. This monumental work extensively covers not only the theory and practice of rhetoric but also the foundational education and comprehensive development of the orator, providing advice applicable from early childhood through adulthood.

An earlier text, De Causis Corruptae Eloquentiae ("On the Causes of Corrupted Eloquence"), has been lost to history. However, scholars believe it served as a preliminary exposition of some of the views later elaborated upon in Institutio Oratoria.

Additionally, two sets of declamations, Declamationes Maiores and Declamationes Minores, have been attributed to Quintilian. Nevertheless, their true authorship remains a subject of scholarly debate, with some modern experts suggesting these texts might represent lecture notes by a scholar who either utilized Quintilian's rhetorical system or was directly trained by him.

2.2. Detailed Analysis of Institutio Oratoria

The Institutio Oratoria stands as Quintilian's definitive work, presenting a comprehensive guide to rhetoric and education.

At its core, Institutio Oratoria asserts that the perfect orator must first and foremost be a good man, and only then an eloquent speaker. This foundational principle is known as his good man theory, emphasizing that a speaker's message must always be just and honorable. Quintilian believed that without genuine moral goodness, one could not effectively speak for the people, and he stressed that a good man is dedicated to the well-being of the populace and the prosperity of society.

Quintilian wrote Institutio Oratoria during the final years of Emperor Domitian's reign, a period marked by increasing tyranny and paranoia. Domitian, who had appointed himself a lifelong censor responsible for public morals, presided over a climate where even slight suspicions of disrespect could lead to severe penalties, and senators frequently denounced one another. Despite having worked alongside Domitian, Quintilian demonstrated significant courage by aligning himself with the Ciceronian tradition, which had seen little expression since the early days of Augustus. Rather than merely focusing on legal pleas, Quintilian concentrated on broader principles of how sound rhetoric influences the education of citizens.

Quintilian's approach to rhetoric was comprehensive and eclectic. He did not claim originality but rather synthesized existing knowledge from numerous sources, avoiding strict adherence to any single school of thought, though he clearly favored Cicero. He also avoided creating short, concise lists of rhetorical rules, believing that the study and art of rhetoric could not be abbreviated, which contributed to the expansive nature of his twelve-volume work.

He explicitly critiqued the popular "Silver Age" style of rhetoric prevalent in his time, which prioritized elaborate ornamentation over clarity and precision. Instead, Quintilian advocated for a return to a simpler, clearer language, akin to Cicero's more concise style. He believed this preference for natural language and straightforward thought might have been influenced by Emperor Vespasian, who was known for his down-to-earth realism and aversion to excess. Quintilian argued that excessive complexity in style deviated from natural language and reasoning, causing confusion for both orator and audience. He advised, "Follow nature as your guide," stating that even an average orator could handle complex subjects by adhering to natural principles and avoiding artificial flamboyance.

Books II.11 through VI of Institutio Oratoria delve into the technical aspects of rhetoric, discussing topics such as natural reasoning, the relationship between nature and art, inventio (invention), proof, emotion, and the effective use of words. Among its most renowned discussions are those on tropes and schemes, detailed in Books VIII and IX. Tropes involve the substitution of one word for another (e.g., metaphor), while schemes involve changes in word order or meaning without direct replacement. Figures of thought are employed to strengthen an argument or add grace, and figures of word, more granular, can be grammatical, shaping the character of words, or rhetorical, where the placement of words is key.

This comprehensive and practical approach to the technical skills of rhetoric places Institutio Oratoria alongside works like Aristotle's Rhetoric and Cicero's De Oratore as a foundational text in ancient rhetorical theory. Quintilian systematically covers the five canons of oratory: inventio (the discovery of arguments), dispositio (the arrangement of arguments), elocutio (the expression of arguments through language), memoria (the memorization of speeches), and pronuntiatio (the delivery of speeches). For each canon, particularly the first three, he provides exhaustive explanations of all elements that must be mastered and considered in the development and expression of arguments. This practical narrative, deeply rooted in Quintilian's own experience as an orator and teacher, is often regarded as the culmination of Greek and Roman rhetorical theory.

Quintilian consistently emphasized the practical and applied aspects of rhetoric over purely theoretical ones. Unlike many modern theorists, he did not view figurative language as a threat to the direct denotation of words. For him, the literal, referential use of language always held primary meaning, with figurative language serving as an occasional, enriching addition, never a replacement.

3.1. Rhetorical Theory

Quintilian's definition of rhetoric is primarily encapsulated in Cato the Elder's famous dictum: Vir bonus, dicendi peritus, meaning "the good man skilled at speaking." He further articulated his vision, stating, "I should like the orator I am training to be a sort of Roman Wise Man." He distinguished this ideal orator from a philosopher, asserting that unlike philosophers, an orator's duty inherently includes active participation in civic life-a defining characteristic of Quintilian's, Isocrates', and Cicero's ideal orator.

Quintilian advocated for imitatio (imitation), the practice of studying and emulating great literary predecessors. However, he also strongly urged the orator to use this acquired knowledge as a springboard for their own original invention and expression, fostering a balance between tradition and innovation.

No author received more praise in Institutio Oratoria than Cicero, whom Quintilian lauded for his unmatched thoroughness in instruction, his ability to profoundly stir emotions, and his exceptional gift of charm. Quintilian's own definition of rhetoric shares many commonalities with Cicero's, particularly the emphasis on the speaker's moral character. Both believed that the study of history and philosophy could significantly enhance an orator's command of copia (abundance of expression) and style, though Quintilian placed an even greater emphasis on the cultivation of the orator's personal character.

Furthermore, in Book II, Quintilian explicitly sided with Plato's assertion in the Phaedrus that a rhetorician must embody justice. He declared, "In the Phaedrus, Plato makes it even clearer that the complete attainment of this art is even impossible without the knowledge of justice, an opinion in which I heartily concur." Their views converge on several key points: the inseparable connection between wisdom, goodness, and eloquence; and the inherently moral and ideological nature of rhetoric. For both Quintilian and Plato, rhetoric is defined as "speaking well," and "speaking well" fundamentally means speaking justly, thereby precluding an amorally neutral conception of the art.

3.2. Educational Philosophy

Quintilian's educational philosophy is comprehensively detailed in Institutio Oratoria, particularly in its first book, which meticulously outlines the training of an orator from infancy. His work reflects his extensive experience as an educator and stands as a landmark in Roman educational history.

Quintilian asserted that education should begin at an early age. He stressed the importance of a child's environment, advocating that even the nurse should speak clearly-a concept so profound that Chrysippus suggested nurses should be philosophers. He also underscored that parents and teachers must be properly educated, specifically noting that a well-educated mother is crucial for nurturing a future orator. Quintilian provided extensive lists of suitable literature for education, making his work an important contribution to literary criticism. While he favored specific authors, especially Cicero as an example of a great writer and orator, he also showed fairness by considering less distinguished writers like Gaius Sallustius Crispus and influential advocates with contrasting styles.

Many of the educational issues Quintilian discussed remain relevant today. Beyond advocating for early education, he insisted that learning should be enjoyable for children, stating, "We should make children's studies a pleasure, so that they may love learning for its own sake." He believed that positive early experiences create lasting impressions that convey the inherent joy and beauty of education. This principle is reflected in modern educational practices, such as the use of educational toys for preschoolers. Quintilian also weighed the merits of schooling versus homeschooling, concluding that school education is preferable, provided it is a good school. He argued that schools provide essential social skills, foster friendships, and cultivate a sense of social solidarity, offering a more beneficial learning environment than isolated study at home, as children are more influenced by peer interaction than by teachers or tutors alone. However, he also cautioned that a good teacher should not take on more students than they can effectively manage, emphasizing the importance of a friendly and affectionate relationship between teacher and student, ensuring that teaching remains a joyful rather than obligatory task.

Perhaps the most compelling aspect of Quintilian's theory on oratorical training is his unwavering insistence on moral instruction as paramount. For Quintilian, only a good person could become an eloquent speaker, a belief that either diverged from or significantly expanded upon Cicero's precepts. He literally believed that morally corrupt individuals should not be orators, arguing, "because the orator's purpose is to bring persuasion, and we trust only those whom we ourselves perceive to be worthy of trust." This conviction was likely a direct response to the pervasive injustice and moral laxity of the era in which he lived. Quintilian likely attributed the decline of oratory to a broader decline in public morality, asserting that only individuals free from vice should engage in the rigorous art of rhetoric. However, some critics point out that this "good orator" is personally virtuous but does not always speak the truth or advocate for the best argument in public, suggesting a potential disconnect between personal morality and public action.

The teacher's primary duty, according to Quintilian, is to discern each child's unique qualities, abilities-such as memory and powers of imitation-and character, and then to guide them according to their individual needs. He argued that an effective teacher of eloquence must possess strong conversational skills, the ability to interpret poetry, writing proficiency, extensive knowledge of various literary works, musical understanding, and a grasp of astronomy and philosophy, in addition to being an outstanding orator themselves. Quintilian's educational thought can be summarized by several key principles: he forbade corporal punishment, believing that praise and rewards were more educationally effective; he advocated for considering individual differences in children's temperaments; he supported early education; he recognized the importance of interest and play in learning; he encouraged a competitive spirit among students; he stressed the critical importance of teacher selection; and he asserted the superiority of school education over home education.

3.3. Ideal Orator

Quintilian's vision of the perfect orator is embodied in the phrase vir bonus, dicendi peritus, or "a good man skilled at speaking." This ideal emphasized not only exceptional oratorical skill but also, fundamentally, unassailable moral integrity. He believed that such an orator must possess a broad liberal education, encompassing a wide range of knowledge and disciplines. For Quintilian, eloquence was not merely a tool for persuasion but a powerful force to be wielded for the greater societal benefit and the pursuit of justice. The ideal orator, therefore, was a virtuous citizen dedicated to using their persuasive abilities for the common good and upholding moral principles.

While Quintilian's work is widely praised, it has also faced some critique. Some scholars have suggested that his deep immersion in rhetorical training may have limited his ability to view rhetoric objectively, leading him to believe that the art was inherently good. This perspective also extended to his view of philosophy, which he saw as a challenge to rhetoric's perceived supremacy as the foundation of all education. Additionally, living in an era of highly ornamental rhetoric, Quintilian, despite preferring natural language and a simpler teaching approach, was inevitably influenced by the prevailing styles, sometimes leading him to adopt unnatural linguistic conventions. Some critics also question the practical feasibility of Quintilian's ideal orator, suggesting that the comprehensive education he prescribed aimed to create a figure that had never existed and was unlikely to emerge, particularly given the decline of political eloquence in his time.

4.1. Contemporary and Later Influence

Quintilian's influence was felt immediately by his contemporaries. His critical assessment of Seneca the Younger's dominant imperial style of oratory was particularly significant. Quintilian deemed Seneca's style "for the most part corrupt and extremely dangerous" due to its "attractive faults," arguing that its appealing nature made it doubly perilous. This critique heavily shaped subsequent judgments of Seneca's style.

The Latin poet Martial addressed a short poem to Quintilian in 86 AD, praising him as the "greatest director of straying youth" and an "honour... to the Roman toga." However, Martial was known for his witty insults, and later lines in the poem hint at Quintilian's ambitious pursuit of wealth and position.

After his death, Quintilian's influence saw periods of decline and resurgence. His pupil, Pliny the Younger, and potentially Juvenal, referenced him as a rare example of "sobriety and of worldly success unusual in the teaching profession." In the 3rd to 5th centuries, his impact was evident in the works of figures like Saint Augustine, whose discussions on signs and figurative language showed his influence, and Jerome, the editor of the Vulgate Bible, whose educational theories were clearly shaped by Quintilian.

Knowledge of Quintilian's work diminished during the Middle Ages as existing manuscripts of Institutio Oratoria became fragmented. However, his work experienced a significant revival during the Italian Renaissance following the pivotal discovery in 1416 by Poggio Bracciolini of a forgotten, complete manuscript in a "filthy dungeon" at the Abbey of Saint Gall. This rediscovery was met with immense enthusiasm; the influential scholar Leonardo Bruni, considered the first modern historian, wrote to Bracciolini, hailing the restoration of Quintilian's writings as a "valuable acquisition" and an "unexpected pleasure." The Italian poet Petrarch even addressed a letter to the deceased Quintilian, crediting him with providing "the inspiration for a new humanistic philosophy of education." This renewed appreciation for Quintilian spread with humanism across Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries. Martin Luther, the German theologian and reformer, famously "claimed that he preferred Quintilian to almost all authors, 'in that he educates and at the same time demonstrates eloquence, that is, he teaches in word and in deed most happily.'" The renowned humanist Erasmus of Rotterdam also showed clear influence from Quintilian's works.

The musicologist Ursula Kirkendale proposed a close connection between the composition of Johann Sebastian Bach's The Musical Offering (BWV 1079) and Institutio Oratoria. This connection stems from Bach's duties teaching Latin in Leipzig, where his early training included rhetoric. Johann Matthias Gesner, a philologist and Rector of the Leipzig Thomasschule for whom Bach composed a cantata in 1729, published a significant edition of Quintilian's work that included a lengthy footnote in Bach's honor.

4.2. Modern Influence

Following its Renaissance peak, Quintilian's influence seemed to wane slightly. The English poet Alexander Pope, in his versified An Essay on Criticism, acknowledged him:

• In grave Quintilian's copious works we find
• The justest rules and clearest method join'd (lines 669-70).

Despite mentions by writers like Montaigne and Lessing, Quintilian was perceived as contributing little to major intellectual history and was "rather little read and rarely edited" by the nineteenth century. However, John Stuart Mill, a highly influential English intellectual of the 19th century, praised Quintilian highly in his Autobiography, calling Institutio Oratoria an "encyclopaedia of the thoughts of the ancients on the whole field of education and culture," from which he retained many valuable ideas. Thomas De Quincey also lauded Institutio Oratoria as an unparalleled "chef-d'œuvre" for its elegance and practical model of the art, superior to even Aristotle's works.

In more recent times, Quintilian has seen another resurgence in prominence. He is frequently included in anthologies of literary criticism and is recognized as an integral figure in the history of education. He is often considered the "earliest spokesman for a child-centered education," an influential concept that underpins many modern pedagogical approaches. His detailed exploration of the rhetorical system also provides valuable insights for students of speech, professional writing, and rhetoric. Furthermore, his discussions on tropes and figures of speech laid a foundational groundwork for contemporary works on the nature of figurative language, including post-structuralism and formalist theories. For instance, the philosophical works of Jacques Derrida on the perceived failure of language to perfectly convey the truth of represented objects draw upon Quintilian's assumptions regarding the function of figurative language and tropes.