JoseonKoreanQueenRegent

Queen Jeongsun

Queen Jeongsun was the second queen consort of Joseon's King Yeongjo and later regent for King Sunjo, known for her political influence, Noron Byeokpa alignment, and the Catholic Persecution of 1801.

1. Biography

Queen Jeongsun's life was marked by her unexpected rise to power and her subsequent exercise of authority as regent.

1.1. Early Life and Family

Born on 2 December 1745, Lady Kim was the daughter of Kim Han-gu of the Gyeongju Kim clan and Lady Won of the Wonju Won clan. Her birthplace was a wealthy area in what is now Seosan, South Chungcheong Province, while her hometown was Yeoju, Gyeonggi Province. She had two older brothers, Kim Gwi-ju (1740-1786) and Kim In-ju (1743-?). Through her paternal line, Lady Kim was a 25th great-granddaughter of King Gyeongsun of Silla and Princess Nakrang. Her family's lineage also connected her to Queen Jeongan, wife of King Jeongjong, through their common ancestor Kim Jeong-gu. On her maternal side, she was an 8th great-granddaughter of Grand Prince Yangnyeong, the eldest son of King Taejong and older brother to Sejong the Great.

1.2. Marriage and Queen Consort

After the death of Queen Jeongseong, King Yeongjo's first consort, in 1757, a new queen was sought. King Yeongjo adhered to his father's (King Sukjong's) policy prohibiting former concubines from being elevated to queen. Thus, a formal bridal selection process was held. On 9 June 1759, Lady Kim was chosen as the new queen. An anecdote from her selection highlights her perceived wisdom: when King Yeongjo reportedly asked what the deepest thing in the world was, other candidates mentioned mountains or the sea, but she replied, "The human heart." She also reputedly expressed admiration for the cotton flower, stating it was the most beautiful because, despite lacking fashion or scent, it warmed the people by providing thread.

On 22 June 1759, Queen Jeongsun formally married King Yeongjo at Changgyeonggung. This union was notable for being the marriage with the largest age difference in Joseon dynasty history; King Yeongjo was 64 years old, while Queen Jeongsun was only 13 (or 66 and 15, depending on lunar/solar calculations from different sources). She was also ten years younger than her husband's son and heir, Crown Prince Sado, and his daughter-in-law, Lady Hyegyŏng. She was even seven years older than her step-grandson, Yi San (the future King Jeongjo). Upon her marriage, her father, Kim Han-gu, was granted the royal title of "Internal Prince Oheung" (오흥부원군Oheung BuwongunKorean), and her mother was titled "Internal Princess Consort Wonpung" (원풍부부인Wonpung BubuinKorean).

The Queen was known for her assertive character. An incident is recounted where a palace maid asked the King to turn his back while taking measurements for clothing, but Queen Jeongsun, despite her young age, directly instructed her husband, "Can you turn around?", demonstrating her regard for the queen's dignity. Despite a deep affection between them, the couple produced no children, and there are no records of her bearing a child or suffering a miscarriage.

1.3. Queen Dowager and Relations with Jeongjo

King Yeongjo passed away on 22 April 1776, and his grandson, Yi San, ascended the throne as King Jeongjo. At 31 years old, Queen Jeongsun was honored as Queen Dowager Yesun. However, this decision faced opposition from figures such as Hong Bong-han (Jeongjo's maternal grandfather) and Jeong Hu-gyeom (Princess Hwawan's adopted son).

Queen Jeongsun's older brother, Kim Gwi-ju, initially advised her to wait for the opportune moment in this political maneuvering. However, King Jeongjo acted decisively, dismissing Hong Bong-han and Jeong Hu-gyeom from their offices. King Jeongjo later exiled Kim Gwi-ju to Heuksan Island, ostensibly for disrespecting his mother, Lady Hyegyŏng. The underlying reason, however, was Kim Gwi-ju's prior involvement in Hong Bong-han's dismissal during Yeongjo's reign. This act exacerbated unspoken tensions and extreme confrontations between Queen Dowager Yesun and King Jeongjo. Some historical accounts even suggest that Queen Jeongsun, along with her brother, was involved in plots against Jeongjo, and she was reportedly confined within the palace during his reign. However, other records, such as the *Myeonguirok* and *Ildeungnok*, suggest that she supported Jeongjo's succession and that he treated her with reverence, contributing to a complex and debated historical relationship.

1.4. Regency and Political Actions

In 1800, King Jeongjo died at the age of 49. His last words, "Sujeongjeon Hall," the residence of Queen Dowager Yesun, fueled speculation about her possible involvement in his death, though no definitive evidence supports this. His ten-year-old son, Yi Gong, succeeded him as King Sunjo. As the most senior royal family member, Queen Dowager Yesun was elevated to Grand Queen Dowager and assumed the role of regent for the young king. She wielded significant power from 1800 until she voluntarily relinquished it in 1803. Her regency marked a distinct departure from King Jeongjo's policies.

1.4.1. Favoring Political Factions and Purges

Queen Jeongsun promptly began to restructure the court, favoring the Noron Byeokpa faction (a conservative faction of the Noron). She took swift action, even during the mourning period for King Jeongjo, breaking tradition by making significant personnel changes. She appointed her relatives and Noron Byeokpa members to key positions, including making Shim Hwan-ji the Chief State Councilor. Her policies aimed to consolidate power within her favored faction and eliminate opposing political groups, including the Soron and Namin Sipa factions, which had gained influence under King Jeongjo.

During her regency, Queen Jeongsun purged a large number of political opponents. She ordered the execution of King Jeongjo's half-brother, Prince Euneon, and Hong Nak-im, Lady Hyegyŏng's brother. She also abolished the Jangyongyeong, a royal guard unit established by King Jeongjo to protect the king and serve as his personal army, thereby weakening the previous king's institutional power. Many Noron Bukpa officials, who had been exiled or dismissed by King Jeongjo, such as Kim Gwan-ju and Kim Yong-ju, were reinstated. In 1802, following King Jeongjo's previous decree, she arranged the marriage of Kim Jo-sun's daughter, the future Queen Sunwon, to King Sunjo. Kim Jo-sun was subsequently honored as Internal Prince Yeongan (영안부원군Yeongan BuwongunKorean) and appointed to various official positions, further solidifying the influence of her affinal relatives.

1.4.2. Catholic Persecution of 1801 (Shin-yu Persecution)

One of the most significant and controversial events of Queen Jeongsun's regency was the severe persecution of Catholics, known as the Shin-yu Persecution (신유박해Sin-yu BakhaeKorean). Unlike King Jeongjo, who had generally tolerated Catholicism, believing that "when orthodox learning shines brightly, heterodox learning will naturally cease," Queen Jeongsun adopted an uncompromising stance.

On 22 February 1801, she issued a decree strictly prohibiting Catholicism, which she referred to as "evil learning" (사학sahakKorean). The decree stated that Catholicism undermined human ethics and societal order by denying parents and kings, likening its adherents to "barbarians and beasts." It urged provincial governors and magistrates to warn people against it and to punish those who did not recant with "treasonous laws." It also mandated the use of the Ogajaktongbeop (a system of mutual surveillance among five-household units) to identify and report Catholic practitioners, with severe punishments, including dismemberment, to ensure their eradication.

This policy was a direct rejection of King Jeongjo's approach to Catholicism and served a clear political purpose: to eliminate the Namin and Sipa factions, which included many Catholic adherents and were political rivals of the Noron Byeokpa. As a result, prominent Namin scholars and Catholics, such as Jeong Yak-jong (the third elder brother of Jeong Yak-yong) and Yi Seung-hun, were executed. Yi Ga-hwan, though he had recanted, was also executed, and Jeong Yak-yong was exiled. The persecution further intensified with the Hwang Sa-yeong Baekseo incident, where Hwang Sa-yeong, a Catholic convert, attempted to seek foreign military intervention to support Catholicism in Joseon, leading to even harsher suppression.

1.5. Death and Burial

Queen Jeongsun's influence began to wane after 1803. In that year, major fires occurred in Pyeongyang and Hamheung, followed by more fires at the Sajikakkigo temple and within Changdeokgung Palace, including Seonjeongjeon Hall and Injeongjeon Hall, in November and December. Amid public unrest caused by these disasters, Queen Jeongsun voluntarily stepped down from her regency on 9 February 1804.

With King Sunjo's direct rule proclaimed, his father-in-law, Kim Jo-sun, who had been a loyal supporter of King Jeongjo, began to purge many of the Byeokpa officials appointed during Queen Jeongsun's regency. This significantly weakened her political influence. She spent her final year with diminished authority and passed away on 11 February 1805, at the age of 60, in Gyeongbokjeon Hall at Changdeokgung Palace. She was posthumously honored as Queen Jeongsun. Her tomb, Wonneung (원릉WonneungKorean), is located within Donggureung in Guri, Gyeonggi Province, where she is buried alongside King Yeongjo.
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2. Political Impact and Legacy

Queen Jeongsun's regency profoundly altered the political landscape of Joseon. Her decisive actions, including the extensive purges of opposing factions and the severe persecution of Catholics, solidified the power of the Noron Byeokpa. This consolidation of power by her family, particularly through her father Kim Han-gu and later through the marriage of King Sunjo to a daughter of Kim Jo-sun, laid the groundwork for the era of Sedo Jeongchi (세도정치Sedo JeongchiKorean).

Sedo Jeongchi, meaning "in-law rule" or "affinal politics," was characterized by the monopolization of power by a few powerful aristocratic families connected to the royal house through marriage. Following Queen Jeongsun's death, the Andong Kim clan, led by figures like Kim Jo-sun, rapidly rose to prominence, wielding unprecedented influence over the government. This period of concentrated power in the hands of affinal relatives often led to corruption, weakened central authority, and exacerbated social and economic problems, marking a significant decline in Joseon's administrative effectiveness and stability.

Queen Jeongsun's legacy remains complex. While she demonstrated political acumen and decisiveness, her policies of political exclusion and religious persecution have drawn criticism for their detrimental impact on human rights and for contributing to the factionalism that plagued late Joseon. Her actions are viewed by some historians as a turning point that led to a less stable and more oppressive political environment in the decades that followed.

3. Criticism and Controversies

Queen Jeongsun's life and reign were marked by several controversies and criticisms that continue to be debated among historians.

One significant point of contention is her relationship with King Jeongjo. While some records suggest a strained and confrontational relationship, with claims of her even attempting to harm him and being subsequently confined, others argue that she supported his ascent to the throne. The historical narrative is further complicated by conflicting accounts regarding her brother Kim Gwi-ju's political activities and his eventual exile, which undoubtedly created tension between the Queen Dowager and her step-grandson. The common perception of extreme animosity is not uniformly supported by all historical documents, with some suggesting a degree of mutual respect or at least careful diplomatic interaction.

Another controversy involves her use of titles such as "Yeogun" (여군YeogunKorean, female ruler) and "Yeoju" (여주YeojuKorean, female lord) during her regency. While some interpreted these as assertions of her status as a de facto female monarch, historical analysis suggests that these terms were commonly used in East Asian cultures to refer to queens or empresses exercising supreme authority, and records indicate that other Joseon queen dowagers also used similar titles. Therefore, the controversy often stems from later interpretations rather than a direct claim to absolute kingship.

Furthermore, the motivations behind her political actions, especially the Shin-yu Persecution, have been heavily scrutinized. While framed as a defense against "heterodox learning," the persecution is widely seen as a politically motivated purge aimed at eliminating the Namin and Sipa factions who opposed the Noron Byeokpa. This strategic use of religious suppression to consolidate power is a significant point of criticism, highlighting a ruthless aspect of her political maneuvers and raising human rights concerns. Her actions are criticized for stifling intellectual discourse and causing immense suffering to innocent individuals, contributing to a period of instability and harsh governance.