ChineseQueen MotherQin DynastyQin Shi Huang

Queen Dowager Zhao

Zhao Ji, mother of Qin Shi Huang, was a Queen Dowager whose life involved political intrigue, controversial affairs, and debates over her son's parentage.

1. Overview

Zhao Ji, whose personal name remains unknown, was a significant figure in ancient China, serving as the wife of King Zhuangxiang of Qin and, most notably, the mother of Qin Shi Huang, who would later become the first emperor of China. Born around 280 BC, she was initially known as Lady Zhao upon her marriage and later became the Queen Dowager after her husband's death. Her life was marked by political intrigue and personal controversies, including a debated relationship with the powerful merchant Lü Buwei and a scandalous affair with Lao Ai, which culminated in a failed coup and her subsequent imprisonment. These events, particularly as recorded by the historian Sima Qian, have shaped her historical portrayal and fueled ongoing debates regarding her character, the legitimacy of Qin Shi Huang's birth, and her ultimate influence on her son's reign.

2. Life

Zhao Ji's life was a dramatic journey from a prominent family in the state of Zhao to the highest echelons of power in Qin, marked by complex relationships and political turmoil.

2.1. Early Life and Life in Zhao

Zhao Ji originated from the state of Zhao, specifically from a wealthy and prominent family in its capital, Handan. Her family's status would prove crucial during times of peril. She was renowned for her exceptional beauty and skill in dancing. At some point, she became a concubine of Lü Buwei, a highly influential and wealthy merchant. This initial relationship with Lü Buwei would later become a source of significant historical controversy regarding the parentage of her son, Ying Zheng.

2.2. Concubine of Prince Yiren and Birth of Zheng

Lü Buwei, who was strategically investing in the political future of Prince Yiren of Qin (a grandson of King Zhaoxiang of Qin and a hostage in Handan), recognized Yiren's fascination with Zhao Ji. Despite his initial reluctance, Lü Buwei decided to give Zhao Ji to Prince Yiren as a consort. A year later, in 259 BC, Zhao Ji gave birth to a son named Zheng, who would later unify China as Qin Shi Huang.

The circumstances surrounding Zheng's birth became a subject of intense historical debate. The renowned historian Sima Qian, who held a generally negative view of the first emperor, claimed that Zhao Ji's pregnancy was unusually long, implying that the child was actually Lü Buwei's, conceived before she was given to Yiren. This claim has been widely discussed by later scholars. While some accept Sima Qian's account, others, including Qing dynasty scholar Liang Yu-sheng, argue that Sima Qian's wording was a subtle way of acknowledging a popular rumor without explicitly endorsing it, suggesting that he did not definitively state Zheng was Lü's son. Modern historians often view this narrative as a possible fabrication intended to undermine the legitimacy of Qin Shi Huang's rule.

During this period, Prince Yiren was a hostage in Handan. When Qin besieged the city, Lü Buwei managed to bribe the guards, allowing Yiren to escape to Qin. However, Zhao Ji and her infant son Zheng were forced to remain behind and hide among her family in Zhao. Her family's prominence and wealth enabled them to survive the crisis, preventing the Zhao authorities from killing them. Following Lü Buwei's diplomatic efforts, Prince Yiren eventually ascended the Qin throne, becoming known posthumously as King Zhuangxiang. Zhao Ji and Zheng were then permitted to return to Qin. During their separation, Yiren had taken another consort from the state of Han, with whom he had a son named Cheng Jiao. Upon her return, Zhao Ji was established as Queen Consort, and Ying Zheng was named Crown Prince.

2.3. Queen Dowager and Affairs

In 247 BC, King Zhuangxiang died, and the 13-year-old Crown Prince Zheng ascended the throne. Zhao Ji consequently became the Queen Dowager. As the young king was still a minor, Lü Buwei, who had been appointed Prime Minister, effectively held the reins of power and was honored with the title of "Regent Father" (仲父ZhòngfǔChinese).

According to Sima Qian, Zhao Ji continued her affair with Lü Buwei even after becoming Queen Dowager. As King Zheng matured, Lü Buwei grew increasingly concerned that their illicit relationship would be discovered, leading to severe repercussions. To protect himself, Lü Buwei sought a replacement lover for the Queen Dowager. He found a man named Lao Ai, who was known for his exceptional virility. Lü Buwei orchestrated a scheme to introduce Lao Ai into the palace by having him perform a trick where he spun a wooden wheel with his penis, ensuring the rumor of his prowess reached Zhao Ji. Zhao Ji, intrigued, expressed a desire for Lao Ai. Lü Buwei then bribed officials to falsely accuse Lao Ai of a crime that would result in castration (corrupt punishment), but instead of actually castrating him, they merely shaved his beard and eyebrows to make him appear as a eunuch.

Disguised as a eunuch, Lao Ai was brought into the palace to serve Zhao Ji. Their affair quickly deepened, and Zhao Ji became deeply infatuated with him. She showered him with favor, and they secretly had two illegitimate sons. Fearing discovery, Zhao Ji consulted a diviner and, under the guise of an auspicious prophecy, moved her residence to Yong, a city away from the capital, to conceal her pregnancies and the births of her children. Lao Ai's influence grew immensely; he was lavished with rewards and held significant power, making decisions at will. His household expanded to include thousands of servants, and over a thousand retainers sought his patronage in hopes of securing official positions. He was even enfeoffed as the Marquis of Changxin. Lao Ai secretly harbored ambitions, plotting to install one of his sons as the next king after Zheng's death.

2.4. Lao Ai's Rebellion and Imprisonment

In 238 BC, during the ninth year of King Zheng's reign, the king traveled to Yong to perform his coming-of-age ceremony. It was at this time that an informant exposed Lao Ai's true identity, revealing that he was not a eunuch, had been secretly involved with the Queen Dowager, had fathered two children with her, and was conspiring to make one of his sons the heir to the throne.

Upon learning that his plot had been uncovered, Lao Ai preemptively launched a rebellion. He forged the seals of the king and the Queen Dowager, mobilizing the Qin army in Yong, the royal guards, cavalry, and even tribal leaders and his retainers. His forces attacked Qinian Palace. King Zheng swiftly responded, ordering Changping Jun and Changwen Jun to lead troops against Lao Ai. A fierce battle ensued in Xianyang, the capital, resulting in hundreds of casualties. Lao Ai's rebellion was decisively crushed, and he fled. King Zheng issued a decree offering a substantial reward of 1.00 M USD for Lao Ai's capture or 500.00 K USD for his death. Lao Ai and his co-conspirators were eventually apprehended. Lao Ai himself was subjected to the horrific punishment of "five horses tearing the body apart" (車裂刑chē liè xíngChinese), and his entire clan was exterminated. More than 20 high-ranking officials involved in the rebellion were beheaded.

The consequences for Zhao Ji were severe. King Zheng, enraged by the betrayal, ordered the execution of her two illegitimate sons with Lao Ai, who were reportedly wrapped in cloth and beaten to death. Zhao Ji herself was stripped of her Queen Dowager title and imprisoned in her palace, later exiled to the city of Yong.

2.5. Return and Later Years

King Zheng's harsh treatment of his mother caused considerable concern among his officials and the other states. Many advisors pleaded with him to reconcile with Zhao Ji, but his anger was initially unyielding, leading him to punish those who dared to intercede.

However, in 237 BC, a man from the state of Qi named Mao Jiao approached King Zheng. He wisely advised the king that his harsh treatment of his own mother would severely damage Qin's reputation among the other states, potentially turning them against Qin at a time when the kingdom was striving for unification. Mao Jiao also warned that such actions would discourage capable scholars from serving Qin. King Zheng eventually heeded Mao Jiao's counsel. He ordered the reburial of the officials he had previously executed for advising reconciliation and personally led a procession to Yong to welcome his mother back. Zhao Ji was brought back to Xianyang and resided in Ganquan Palace. This act symbolized the restoration of their mother-son relationship. Mao Jiao was subsequently appointed as a high minister.

Following the Lao Ai rebellion, Lü Buwei was also implicated and dismissed from his post as Prime Minister. He was exiled to his fief in Henan. Fearing further repercussions from King Zheng, Lü Buwei eventually committed suicide by drinking poison at the age of 57.

Zhao Ji died in 228 BC, six years after Lü Buwei's death, at approximately 53 years old. At the time of her death, Ying Zheng was still King of Qin. After he unified China in 221 BC and declared himself Qin Shi Huang, the "First Emperor," he posthumously honored his mother with the title of Empress Dowager (帝太后Dì TàihòuChinese). She was buried alongside King Zhuangxiang at Zhiyang.

3. Historical Evaluation and Controversy

Zhao Ji's historical portrayal is largely shaped by the accounts of ancient historians, most notably Sima Qian in his Records of the Grand Historian. Sima Qian's narrative is critical, depicting her as a woman of "licentious and unrestrained" character who engaged in illicit affairs. This portrayal has led to her being viewed as a controversial figure, particularly concerning her private life and its political ramifications.

The most enduring controversy surrounding Zhao Ji is the question of Qin Shi Huang's true parentage. Sima Qian's assertion that Ying Zheng was actually the son of Lü Buwei, conceived before Zhao Ji was given to Prince Yiren, has been a subject of intense debate for centuries. While this claim has been widely circulated, modern scholarship offers counter-arguments, suggesting that Sima Qian's account might have been a deliberate attempt to discredit Qin Shi Huang and his lineage, possibly influenced by the Han dynasty's desire to undermine the legitimacy of the preceding Qin dynasty. Some scholars point to the ambiguity in Sima Qian's own text, suggesting that he may have been reporting a popular rumor rather than stating a definitive fact.

Beyond the parentage debate, Zhao Ji's actions, particularly her prolonged affair with Lao Ai and the subsequent rebellion, are often criticized as destabilizing the Qin court during a critical period of unification. However, some historical interpretations suggest that her behavior, while scandalous by later Confucian standards, might not have been entirely outside the moral norms of the Warring States period, where political alliances and personal relationships were often intertwined in complex ways. Nonetheless, the severe consequences of Lao Ai's rebellion, including the execution of her illegitimate children and her own exile, underscore the profound impact of her choices on her life and the political landscape of Qin.

4. Impact

Zhao Ji's tumultuous life and controversial actions likely had a profound, albeit indirect, impact on her son, Qin Shi Huang, shaping his personality, upbringing, and ultimately, his reign. The traumatic events surrounding his mother's affairs and the Lao Ai rebellion, which occurred when he was a young and impressionable king, may have deeply affected his psyche.

Witnessing his mother's perceived betrayal and the subsequent coup attempt could have fostered a deep sense of distrust in Qin Shi Huang, particularly towards women and powerful officials. This distrust might have contributed to his later reputation for ruthlessness, his strict adherence to Legalism, and his harsh suppression of dissent. The execution of his half-brothers and the exile of his mother, ordered by himself, highlight a willingness to take extreme measures to consolidate power and eliminate perceived threats, a characteristic that defined his imperial rule.

Furthermore, the need to restore his mother's position and quell the rumors surrounding his own legitimacy, as advised by Mao Jiao, may have instilled in Qin Shi Huang a strong desire for absolute control and a determination to unify China under a single, unchallengeable authority. The chaos and instability caused by his mother's affairs could have reinforced his belief in the necessity of a centralized, authoritarian government to prevent similar internal conflicts. While direct evidence of her influence on his specific policies is scarce, the personal traumas and political lessons learned during his formative years undoubtedly played a role in shaping the character of China's first emperor and the nature of his unified empire.