Muyeol of Silla

2.1. Birth and Family Lineage

Kim Chunchu was born in 603. His father was 김용수_{Kim Yongsu}^Korean (also known as 김용춘_{Kim Yongchun}^Korean), a son of Silla's 25th ruler, King Jinji. His mother was Princess Cheonmyeong, a daughter of Silla's 26th ruler, King Jinpyeong, and Queen Maya. This dual royal lineage initially granted him the prestigious "seonggol" (sacred bone) status.

However, the political fortunes of his paternal line were complicated by the overthrow of King Jinji just four years into his reign. Consequently, all royalty from Jinji's lineage, including Kim Yongsu, were deemed unfit to rule. Despite this, Kim Yongsu was one of the few remaining seonggols, and his marriage to Princess Cheonmyeong, also a seonggol, meant their child, Kim Chunchu, inherited the seonggol rank, thus retaining a claim to the throne. Kim Yongsu was a powerful figure in the government, but he eventually lost his influence to Kim Baekban, the king's brother. To survive, Kim Yongsu accepted the "jingol" (true bone) rank, which was immediately below seonggol, thereby relinquishing his and his son's direct right to the throne. This made Kim Chunchu a jingol, though still of royal blood.

According to the *Hwarang Segi*, a controversial historical text, Kim Yongchun and Kim Yongsu were distinct individuals and brothers, both sons of King Jinji. This text claims that Kim Yongchun married Princess Cheonmyeong and fathered Chunchu, but died early. Princess Cheonmyeong then remarried Kim Yongsu, making Chunchu Kim Yongsu's adopted son. This account, however, contradicts other historical records like the *Hwangnyongsa Jungsu-gi* and is a point of contention among historians.

2.2. Political Climate and Rise to Power

Silla during Chunchu's formative years was characterized by intense succession struggles and the rigid influence of the bone rank system. Following the death of his maternal aunt, Queen Seondeok, Kim Chunchu was initially passed over for the throne in favor of Queen Jindeok, who was the last verifiable seonggol.

With Queen Jindeok's death in 654, the seonggol lineage became extinct. This created an unprecedented succession crisis, as a monarch from the jingol rank with royal blood had to be chosen. Alcheon, who held the powerful title of 상대등_Sangdaedeung^Korean (the highest government post), was initially considered the favorite to succeed. However, Alcheon's father had intentionally married a jingol woman to ensure his son would not be a seonggol and thus avoid the dangerous power struggles for the throne. Despite being a strong candidate, Alcheon ultimately refused the throne.

Crucially, it was Kim Yu-sin, a prominent general and a powerful figure from the former Gimhae Gaya royal family, who strongly supported Kim Chunchu's claim. With Kim Yu-sin's backing and Alcheon's refusal, Kim Chunchu was eventually recommended by the populace and ascended to the throne as King Muyeol. His accession marked a fundamental shift in Silla's monarchy, establishing the jingol line as the new royal succession and ushering in the period known as Silla's Middle Period (중대_Jungdae^Korean). Immediately upon his enthronement, Muyeol began consolidating his power by promoting his sons, such as Munwang, 김지경_Jigyeong^Korean, and 김개원_Gaewon^Korean, to high-ranking official positions like 이찬_Ichan^Korean.

3.1. Marriage to Munhee

Kim Yu-sin had two sisters: Bo-hee, who was described as shy and delicate, and Mun-hee (문명왕후_{Munmyeong Wanghu}^Korean), who was tall and outgoing. Kim Yu-sin harbored a strong desire for one of his sisters to marry Kim Chunchu, recognizing the immense political benefits such a union would bring.

The *Samguk Yusa* recounts a famous story regarding their courtship. One day, Kim Chunchu visited Kim Yu-sin's house for a game of 격구_gyeokgu^Korean, a traditional Korean polo. During the game, Kim Yu-sin deliberately tore a tassel from Kim Chunchu's robe and offered to have one of his sisters mend it. He first sent for Bo-hee, but she politely refused, citing her nervousness about approaching a stranger, especially one of such high status. Mun-hee, however, stepped forward and offered to sew it. This encounter sparked a mutual affection between Kim Chunchu and Mun-hee, leading to frequent visits by Chunchu to Yu-sin's home.

Eventually, Mun-hee became pregnant. Kim Chunchu, who was already married to Princess Bora (보라궁주_{Bora Gungju}^Korean) of the Gyeongju Seol clan, kept the pregnancy a secret, fearing the complications it might cause. Upon discovering his sister's pregnancy, Kim Yu-sin severely reprimanded her. He then orchestrated a plan to pressure Kim Chunchu into marriage: he ordered his servants to spread rumors of Mun-hee's pregnancy out of wedlock and that he intended to burn her to death because of the dishonor.

The climax of this scheme occurred when Queen Seondeok was on an outing with her officials on Mount Namsan. Kim Yu-sin built a large pile of dry logs and twigs in his garden and set it ablaze, ensuring the smoke would be visible from the mountain. When the Queen noticed the smoke and inquired about its source, her attendants, though initially embarrassed, eventually revealed the rumors about Mun-hee's pregnancy and Yu-sin's supposed intention to kill her. Astonished, the Queen wondered aloud about the father's identity. Noticing Kim Chunchu's anxious expression, she pressed him, and the truth was revealed. The Queen then ordered him to go and save Mun-hee's life by granting him permission to marry her as his second wife, with the understanding that she would become his lawful spouse upon the death of his first wife.

Mun-hee officially became Kim Chunchu's wife after his first wife, Princess Bora, died in childbirth with their second child. She was crowned Queen upon his accession as the 29th King of Silla in 654. Their child, 법민_Beopmin^Korean, would later become King Munmu, who completed the unification of the Three Kingdoms 29 years after Queen Seondeok's death.

3.2. Relationship with Kim Yu-sin

The marriage between Kim Chunchu and Mun-hee was a highly strategic move that forged a powerful political and military alliance between the royal lineage of King Jinji (represented by Kim Chunchu) and the influential Gimhae Kim clan (represented by Kim Yu-sin), who were descendants of the former Gaya royalty. This union was mutually beneficial: the Jinji lineage gained the crucial military might of Kim Yu-sin's faction, while the Gimhae Kim clan gained political legitimacy and access to the highest echelons of power through their connection to the royal family. This strategic alliance created a formidable new power bloc within the jingol aristocracy, challenging and eventually superseding the influence of the older seonggol-affiliated noble families.

Kim Yu-sin's role in King Muyeol's reign was indispensable. He became the most powerful figure in the Silla court, serving as a trusted advisor and military commander. Six years into Muyeol's reign, in 660, Kim Yu-sin was appointed to the prestigious position of 상대등_Sangdaedeung^Korean. This appointment was a crucial step in Muyeol's consolidation of royal power. Prior to Muyeol's reign, the Sangdaedeung, as the head of the aristocratic Hwabaek Council, often served as a check on royal authority and could even be a rival for the throne. However, by appointing his staunch ally Kim Yu-sin, Muyeol effectively brought the Sangdaedeung position under royal control, transforming it into an instrument of centralized power and significantly weakening the traditional influence of the Hwabaek Council.

To further solidify their bond, King Muyeol married his third daughter, 지소부인_{Lady Jiso}^Korean, to Kim Yu-sin when the general was 60 years old. This intermarriage reinforced the deep ties between the two families. It is also said that Kim Yu-sin understood King Muyeol's long-term strategy, including the possibility of having to confront the Tang Dynasty if they overstepped their bounds after the unification of the Three Kingdoms. Kim Yu-sin's sister, Bo-hee, also became one of King Muyeol's wives, further intertwining the two powerful families.

4.1. Diplomatic Missions to Goguryeo and Japan

Before his ascension to the throne, Kim Chunchu actively engaged in diplomatic efforts to secure Silla's position amidst the escalating conflicts with its neighbors. In 642, Silla suffered a devastating blow when Baekje's General 윤충_Yunchung^Korean attacked and captured Daeya-seong (대야성_Daeya-seong^Korean), a key fortress in present-day Hapcheon, Gyeongsangnam-do. The fortress commander, 김품석_{Kim Pumsok}^Korean, who was Kim Chunchu's son-in-law, was killed along with Chunchu's daughter, 고타소_Gotaso^Korean. This personal tragedy deeply affected Kim Chunchu, hardening his resolve to destroy Baekje.

Seeking military aid, Kim Chunchu proposed a diplomatic mission to Goguryeo. He met with King Bojang and the powerful military dictator 연개소문_{Yeon Gaesomun}^Korean. However, Goguryeo demanded the return of lands north of Juknyeong (죽령_Juknyeong^Korean), which Silla had acquired during the reign of King Jinheung. This demand, viewed as imperialistic by Silla, was unacceptable, as losing the Han River basin would severely cripple Silla. Kim Chunchu was consequently detained by Goguryeo. He was eventually released through a combination of Kim Yu-sin's military posturing at the border and the assistance of a Goguryeo minister named 선도해_Seondo-hae^Korean, after Chunchu sent a deceptive letter promising to return the disputed territories.

The *Nihon Shoki* (Chronicles of Japan) also records a visit by Kim Chunchu to Japan in 647, during the reign of Emperor Kōtoku (孝徳天皇_{Kōtoku Tennō}^Japanese). He was listed with the rank of 대아찬_Dae-achan^Korean. The Japanese account states that in 646, a Japanese envoy, Kōmuko Genri, was sent to Silla, resulting in the abolition of tribute from Imna (任那_Imna^Japanese, the Japanese name for the Gaya Confederacy) to Japan and the demand for hostages from Silla. In 647, Kōmuko returned to Japan accompanied by Chunchu, who remained in Japan as a hostage for a period.

4.2. Alliance with the Tang Dynasty

Recognizing the futility of an alliance with Goguryeo and the limitations of Silla's own military strength against the combined might of Baekje and Goguryeo, Kim Chunchu turned his attention to the burgeoning Tang Dynasty in China. In December 648, Kim Chunchu, accompanied by his son Munwang, embarked on a crucial diplomatic mission to the Tang court. He was warmly received by Emperor Taizong.

During his stay, Chunchu visited the 國子監_Guozijian^Chinese (National Academy) and observed the imperial ceremonies. He formally requested that Silla's official attire be changed to conform to Tang's system, a gesture of Silla's deference and commitment to the alliance. Emperor Taizong bestowed upon him the honorary rank of 特進_Teukjin^Chinese (Special Advance). In a private audience, Chunchu passionately appealed for military assistance against Baekje, highlighting Baekje's aggressive invasions that had captured dozens of Silla's border castles and blocked Silla's tribute routes to Tang. Emperor Taizong was convinced and agreed to dispatch troops. As a sign of goodwill and commitment, Kim Chunchu left his son Munwang in Tang as a hostage or attendant.

On his return journey, Kim Chunchu narrowly escaped capture by Goguryeo patrol boats in the Yellow Sea. He was saved by the sacrifice of 온군해_{On Gunhae}^Korean, a Silla official who wore Chunchu's noble attire and remained on the ship to divert the Goguryeo forces, allowing Chunchu to escape on a smaller boat. This incident underscored the perilous geopolitical situation Silla faced.

4.3. Adoption of Tang Systems

Following Kim Chunchu's successful diplomatic mission to Tang, Silla rapidly accelerated its pro-Tang policies, adopting numerous aspects of Tang culture and governance. From 649, Silla officially changed its court attire to the Tang style. In 650, Queen Jindeok herself composed the "Five-word Song of Great Peace" (오언태평송_{O-eon Taepyeongsong}^Korean), a poem praising Tang's imperial achievements, and sent it to the Tang court embroidered on silk. More significantly, Silla abolished its traditional era names and began using Tang's 永徽_Yonghwi^Chinese era name, signifying a formal subservience to the Tang imperial calendar.

In 651, Silla further emulated Tang's administrative practices by holding the 하정례_Hajeongnye^Korean, a New Year's Day ceremony where all officials gathered, in the Jo-wonjeon palace, mirroring Chinese imperial rituals. The 품주_Pimju^Korean (Board of Protocol) was reorganized into the 집사부_Jipsabu^Korean (Chancellery), which was responsible for confidential state affairs, reflecting a move towards a more centralized bureaucracy. A new administrative body, the 좌이방부_Jwa-ibangbu^Korean, was also established. These reforms, including the detailed revision of legal codes (이방부격_{Ibangbu-gyeok}^Korean) in 654, laid the groundwork for a Tang-style legal and administrative system in Silla. These changes were instrumental in strengthening royal authority by centralizing power and modernizing the state's governance, often at the expense of the traditional aristocratic institutions.

5.1. Accession to the Throne

In March 654, Queen Jindeok passed away, leaving the Silla throne vacant and the seonggol lineage extinct. The jingol aristocratic factions initially sought to appoint Alcheon, the 상대등_Sangdaedeung^Korean, as regent. However, Alcheon, demonstrating political acumen, declined the offer and instead recommended Kim Chunchu for the throne. After a period of polite refusal, Kim Chunchu finally accepted the unanimous recommendation of the Silla populace and ascended to the throne as King Muyeol.

His enthronement marked a pivotal moment in Silla's history. He was the first monarch from the jingol rank, signifying the end of the seonggol-dominated era that had lasted since the kingdom's founding. This transition ushered in what historians refer to as Silla's Middle Period (중대_Jungdae^Korean), characterized by a stronger, more centralized monarchy.

5.2. Domestic Policies and Reforms

Upon his accession, King Muyeol immediately set about legitimizing and strengthening his royal authority. He posthumously honored his father, Kim Yongchun, with the title of 문흥왕_{Munheung-wang}^Korean (King Munheung), and his mother, Princess Cheonmyeong, with the title of 문정태후_{Munjeong Taehu}^Korean (Queen Munjeong), reinforcing the legitimacy of his new royal line.

In May 654, Muyeol ordered 이방부령_{Ibangbu-ryeong}^Korean (Director of the Board of Justice) 양수_Yangsu^Korean and others to codify over 60 articles of the 이방부격_{Ibangbu-gyeok}^Korean, a set of legal codes. This initiative was a crucial step in establishing a Tang-style legal system in Silla, aimed at standardizing laws and strengthening centralized governance.

In 655, King Muyeol further solidified his power by designating his eldest son, 김법민_Beopmin^Korean (born to Queen Munmyeong), as the Crown Prince. He also bestowed various official ranks upon his other sons by Queen Munmyeong and other consorts, appointing them to key positions within the government. This strategy of appointing loyal family members to critical roles was a hallmark of his reign, ensuring the stability and control of the royal court.

5.3. Consolidation of Royal Power

King Muyeol systematically worked to enhance the monarchy's authority and diminish the influence of the traditional aristocracy. His appointment of his sons to high-ranking positions, such as Prince Munwang becoming 중시_Jungsi^Korean (Chief Minister) of the 집사부_Jipsabu^Korean in 658, ensured that the core of the government was staffed by individuals loyal to the king.

Perhaps his most significant move in consolidating royal power was the appointment of Kim Yu-sin as 상대등_Sangdaedeung^Korean in January 660. Historically, the Sangdaedeung, as the head of the aristocratic Hwabaek Council, represented the interests of the nobility and often acted as a powerful check on the king's power, sometimes even being a rival for the throne. However, by appointing his most trusted and militarily powerful ally, Kim Yu-sin, King Muyeol effectively transformed the Sangdaedeung into a position subordinate to the crown. This move significantly weakened the Hwabaek Council's ability to challenge royal decisions, paving the way for a more autocratic monarchy that would characterize Silla's Middle Period. This centralized royal power was essential for Muyeol to embark on the ambitious military campaigns against Baekje and Goguryeo.

6.1. Alliance with Tang for Baekje Campaign

King Muyeol had consistently advocated for a joint military operation with the Tang Dynasty to eliminate Baekje. His persistent pleas finally bore fruit in March 660, when the Tang court, under Emperor Gaozong, agreed to dispatch a massive expeditionary force. The Tang army, numbering 130,000 troops (some sources state 144,000 troops), was led by the distinguished generals 蘇定方_{Su Dingfang}^Chinese and 劉伯英_{Yu Baiying}^Chinese. Kim Inmun, who had been sent to Tang to request aid, returned as a Deputy Commander (부대총관_{Budaechonggwan}^Korean) of Su Dingfang's forces. King Muyeol himself was granted the title of 우이도행군총관_{Uido Haenggun Chonggwan}^Korean.

To coordinate the joint attack, King Muyeol departed Seorabeol on May 26 with 50,000 soldiers from Silla, led by General Kim Yu-sin, 김진주_{Kim Jinju}^Korean, and 김천존_{Kim Cheonjon}^Korean. By June 18, the Silla forces reached Namcheonjeong (남천정_{Namcheonjeong}^Korean), a Silla military outpost. On June 21, Crown Prince Kim Beopmin, leading 100 warships, met Su Dingfang at Deokmuldo (덕물도_Deokmuldo^Korean) to finalize their strategy, agreeing to converge on Baekje's capital, Sabi Castle (사비성_Sabi-seong^Korean), by July 10. While his son and generals led the main Silla forces, King Muyeol remained at Geumdol-seong (금돌성_{Geumdol-seong}^Korean).

6.2. Military Strategy and Key Battles

The joint Silla-Tang military strategy involved a two-pronged attack: the Silla ground forces would advance from the east, while the Tang naval forces would land on the western coast and march towards Sabi.

On July 9, 660, the Silla army, led by Kim Yu-sin and Crown Prince Kim Beopmin, engaged the main Baekje forces, commanded by General Gyebaek, at the decisive Battle of Hwangsanbeol (황산벌 전투_{Hwangsanbeol Jeontu}^Korean). Despite being heavily outnumbered, Gyebaek's 5,000 troops fought valiantly, but were ultimately overwhelmed by the Silla forces. Gyebaek himself was killed in the battle, leaving Baekje's capital vulnerable and unprotected. Simultaneously, the Tang forces successfully landed at Gibolpo (기벌포_Gibolpo^Korean), breaking through Baekje's naval defenses and advancing towards Sabi.

6.3. Fall of Baekje and its Aftermath

With the Baekje army defeated at Hwangsanbeol and the Tang forces closing in, Sabi Castle fell on July 13, 660. King Uija and his Crown Prince, 부여융_{Buyeo Yung}^Korean, initially fled to Ungjin Castle (웅진성_Ungjin-seong^Korean). However, on July 18, King Uija surrendered, marking the official end of the Baekje Kingdom.

Upon the fall of Sabi, Crown Prince Kim Beopmin publicly humiliated Buyeo Yung by spitting on his face, declaring, "Your father unjustly killed my sister and buried her in prison, causing me anguish for 20 years. Today, your life is in my hands!" This act highlighted the deep-seated animosity between Silla and Baekje, particularly the unresolved grievances over the death of Kim Chunchu's daughter, Gotaso.

On July 29, King Muyeol arrived at Soburi-seong (소부리성_Soburi-seong^Korean, another name for Sabi Castle) from Geumdol-seong. He sent 제감_Jegam^Korean 천복_Cheonbok^Korean to Tang to report the victory. On August 2, Muyeol ordered the execution of 모척_Mo-cheok^Korean and 검일_Geom-il^Korean, two Baekje subordinates who had betrayed Silla during the fall of Daeya-seong. He then hosted a celebratory banquet for the Silla generals, where he forced King Uija to pour wine for them, further humiliating the captured Baekje monarch and his officials, many of whom wept openly.

After the conquest, Tang General Su Dingfang left 10,000 troops under 유인원_{Liu Ren-yuan}^Chinese to garrison Sabi Castle. He then returned to Tang with King Uija, other Baekje royals, high-ranking officials, and 12,000 Baekje people (including 12,807 farmers). Kim Inmun and other Silla officials accompanied Su Dingfang to Tang. Silla also dispatched 7,000 troops under Prince Kim Intae to assist Liu Ren-yuan in defending Sabi.

The Tang Dynasty then established five military governorships (도독부_dodokbu^Korean) in the former Baekje territory, with the main one being the Ungjin Dodokbu. They appointed local Baekje gentry who had cooperated with Tang as governors. Liu Ren-yuan was stationed at Ungjin, which later became a Tang base for operations against Japan. Tang's decision to annex Baekje territory and not share it with Silla caused significant resentment for King Muyeol, despite their alliance.

Following Baekje's fall, various Baekje revival movements emerged across the former kingdom, engaging in fierce resistance against the Silla-Tang forces. King Muyeol actively participated in suppressing these rebellions. On October 9, he led forces with Crown Prince Beopmin to attack Iryeseong (이례성_Iryeseong^Korean), capturing it on October 18 and receiving the surrender of 20 nearby Baekje castles. On October 30, they attacked Baekje revival forces on a mountain south of Sabi, beheading 1,500 people. On November 5, they crossed Gye-tan (계탄_Gye-tan^Korean) and attacked Wangheungsajam-seong (왕흥사잠성_{Wangheungsajam-seong}^Korean), capturing it on the seventh day and beheading 700 people. Upon his return to Seorabeol on November 22, Muyeol conducted a merit review, notably granting high Silla ranks, such as 일길찬_Ikgilchan^Korean, and positions like 총관_Chonggwan^Korean (Total Commander) to captured Baekje officials like 좌평_Jwapyeong^Korean 충상_Chungsang^Korean and 상영_Sangyeong^Korean, rather than punishing them. This policy aimed at integrating the conquered Baekje elite into Silla's administration. He also abolished border garrisons and relocated Apdokju (압독주_Apdokju^Korean), appointing a new governor.

The Baekje revival efforts, notably led by General 복신_Boksin^Korean and Prince 부여풍_{Buyeo Pung}^Korean (who was invited from Japan), continued for several years. Japan, a long-standing ally of Baekje, dispatched significant forces to aid the revival. However, these efforts culminated in the disastrous Battle of Baekgang in 663, where the combined Baekje-Japanese forces were decisively defeated by the Silla-Tang alliance. Although King Muyeol had already passed away by this time, the groundwork for this final suppression of Baekje resistance was laid during his reign.

7.1. Continued Conflict with Goguryeo

Even after the conquest of Baekje, Silla faced ongoing military engagements with Goguryeo. In January 655, a combined force of Goguryeo, Baekje, and Malgal (말갈_Malgal^Korean) tribes attacked Silla, seizing 33 border castles in the north. Silla promptly sent envoys to Tang to request military assistance. In response, Tang dispatched generals Cheng Mingzhen and Su Dingfang to attack Goguryeo. In 659, Baekje again invaded Silla's border, prompting Silla to send another envoy to Tang seeking intervention. These repeated incursions from Goguryeo, often in alliance with Baekje, kept Silla's northern borders volatile throughout Muyeol's reign.

7.2. Preparations for the Goguryeo Campaign

King Muyeol's long-term strategic vision extended beyond the destruction of Baekje to the eventual conquest of Goguryeo. His persistent diplomatic efforts with the Tang Dynasty, initiated years before his reign, were always aimed at securing Tang's military might for the complete unification of the Korean Peninsula. In 661, just months before his death, King Muyeol personally participated in a Tang expedition against Goguryeo, demonstrating his commitment to this final phase of unification. While he fell ill and died during this campaign, his actions ensured that the diplomatic and military framework for the ultimate Silla-Tang assault on Goguryeo was firmly in place, paving the way for his son, King Munmu, to complete the grand endeavor.

8.1. Circumstances of Death

King Taejong Muyeol died in June 661, at the age of 59. Historical records indicate that he passed away while on a campaign against Goguryeo, suggesting his death was due to illness during military service. He was interred north of Yeonggyeongsa Temple (영경사_{Yeonggyeongsa}^Korean) in Gyeongju. Upon hearing of his death, Emperor Gaozong of Tang held a mourning ceremony at Luocheng Gate (洛城門_Luochengmen^Chinese) in Luoyang, demonstrating the high regard in which he was held by the Tang court.

8.2. Posthumous Honors and Title

Following his death, King Muyeol was bestowed with the posthumous name 무열_Muyeol^Korean (武烈). More significantly, he was given the temple name 태종_Taejong^Korean (太宗). This was a monumental honor, as Taejong was the first temple name ever granted to a monarch in Korean history, typically reserved for emperors who founded dynasties or achieved great feats. This title underscored his profound impact on Silla and the Korean Peninsula.

8.3. Succession by Munmu

King Muyeol's death led to a peaceful and orderly transition of power. His eldest son, Crown Prince Kim Beopmin, smoothly ascended to the throne, becoming King Munmu. It was King Munmu who, building upon his father's strategic alliances and military successes, would go on to complete the unification of the Three Kingdoms by conquering Goguryeo in 668 and subsequently expelling the Tang forces from the peninsula, establishing the Unified Silla Kingdom.

9.1. Location and Identification

King Taejong Muyeol's tomb is located in 경주시 서악동_Seoak-dong^Korean, Gyeongju, Gyeongsangbuk-do, on the eastern slopes of Seondo-san (선도산_Seondo-san^Korean). It is the southernmost of the five large mounds in the Seoak-ri Tumuli (서악리 고분군_{Seoak-ri Gobungun}^Korean). The tomb mound covers an area of 153 K ft^{2 (14.17 K m2)}, making it one of the larger royal tombs in Silla.

It holds particular historical value as one of the very few Silla-era tombs for which the identity of the interred monarch is known with certainty. The tomb is believed to be a horizontal stone chamber tomb (횡혈식 석실분_{hoengnyeolsik seoksilbun}^Korean). Its mound decoration is relatively simple compared to other royal tombs, featuring a perimeter of natural stones around its base. The tomb was designated as Historic Site No. 20 on January 21, 1963, and underwent preservation work between 1972 and 1973.

9.2. Tomb Inscription

In front of King Muyeol's tomb, to the northeast, stands a stele known as the 태종무열왕릉비_{Taejong Muyeolwangneungbi}^Korean (Stele of King Taejong Muyeol's Tomb), which is designated as National Treasure No. 25. Although the main body of the stele had disappeared by the Japanese colonial period, its tortoise-shaped base (귀부_gwibu^Korean) and capstone (이수_isu^Korean) remain.

The capstone bears an eight-character inscription: 태종무열대왕지비_{太宗武烈大王之碑}^Korean (Taejong Muyeol Daewang Ji Bi), which explicitly states "Stele of King Taejong Muyeol the Great." This inscription unequivocally confirms the identity of the tomb's occupant, making it a crucial historical artifact. According to the *Daedong Geumseokseo* (대동금석서_{Daedong Geumseokseo}^Korean), the stele was erected in 661, the year of King Muyeol's death, and the inscription was personally written by his son, Kim Inmun.

10.1. Positive Assessments

Contemporaries and later generations in Silla held King Taejong Muyeol in extremely high regard. This is evident in the posthumous temple name "Taejong" (太宗) bestowed upon him, a title usually reserved for founding emperors or those who achieved monumental feats. This was the first instance of a temple name being used in Korean history, a testament to his perceived greatness. When Emperor Gaozong questioned Silla's use of "Taejong," a title associated with Tang emperors, Silla's King Sinmun (Muyeol's grandson) famously retorted that Muyeol, like Tang Taizong, achieved the great task of unifying three states with the help of a "sacred minister" (Kim Yu-sin). Emperor Gaozong, recalling a prophecy of a "heavenly person" descending to become Yu-sin, eventually permitted the use of the title. Later, during the Joseon Dynasty, scholar Kim Jong-jik cited King Muyeol's precedent to argue against removing temple names from historical records.

King Seongdeok (reigned 702-737) built Bongdeoksa Temple (봉덕사_Bongdeoksa^Korean) to pray for King Muyeol's peaceful repose. King Hyegong (reigned 765-780) established the Five Temples (오묘_Om-yo^Korean) for royal ancestors, designating King Muyeol, along with King Michu (the first Kim clan king) and King Munmu, as "ancestors never to be destroyed" (세세불훼지종_{sesebulhyejijong}^Korean), signifying their perpetual veneration. This practice continued until 801, when separate shrines were built for Muyeol and Munmu.

In the 9th century, Silla's renowned scholar Choe Chi-won praised Muyeol's accomplishments. In his 890 stele inscription for 낭혜화상_{Nanghye Hwasang}^Korean, Choe stated that after Muyeol's visit to Tang, "our land transformed into a civilized state" (自玆吾土一變至於魯_{Jajao-to ilbyeon ji-eo No}^Chinese) and that he "pacified the two enemy states and brought civilization" (平二敵國俾人變外飭_{Pyeong-i jeokguk bi-in byeon-oesaek}^Chinese), highlighting Muyeol's role in adopting Tang systems and bringing peace by conquering Goguryeo and Baekje. In an 893 letter to a Tang official, Choe attributed the "three hundred years of peace in one corner of the land and tranquility across the wide sea" to King Muyeol's efforts. Most scholars during the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties largely shared this positive assessment.

10.2. Criticisms and Controversies

Despite widespread praise, King Taejong Muyeol's legacy became a subject of intense criticism, particularly in the early 20th century, during Japanese colonial rule. Nationalist historians began to critically re-evaluate his alliance with the Tang Dynasty, arguing that by inviting foreign forces to attack fellow Korean kingdoms (Baekje and Goguryeo), he had curtailed the historical territory of the Korean nation.

Jang Ji-yeon, a prominent journalist who criticized the Eulsa Treaty, argued in 1906 that Muyeol's act of bringing in Tang forces to strike "our own people" (Baekje and Goguryeo) led to over a thousand years of reliance on foreign ideologies, diminishing Korea's self-esteem and increasing foreign influence. He saw this as a key factor preventing national unity.

Shin Chae-ho, a leading nationalist historian, vehemently criticized Kim Chunchu from a strong ethnic nationalist perspective. He viewed Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla as "sacred Buyeo tribes," or "brothers of the Korean nation." For Shin, Kim Chunchu's alliance with Tang to attack Goguryeo and Baekje was akin to "inviting robbers to kill brothers," labeling him a "sinner of history" for eliminating fellow Koreans with foreign assistance. In his *Doksa Sinron* (A New Reading of History), Shin challenged the traditional positive evaluation of "Three Kingdoms Unification," arguing that the 4,000-year history of the Korean nation was the history of the rise and fall of the Buyeo people, and thus, Muyeol's actions were a betrayal of the broader Buyeo ethnic group. This perspective shifted the focus of ancient Korean history from a peninsula-centric view to one centered on Manchuria and the Buyeo people.

An Jae-hong, a historian who advocated for the "North-South States period" theory, also criticized Silla's actions. He argued that Silla's reliance on Tang to destroy Baekje and Goguryeo resulted in the abandonment of most northern territories, including Pyongyang and the Gwanbuk region. He asserted that Silla's use of foreign power and subservience to Tang's commands laid the foundation for the "Sadaejuui" (사대주의_sadaejuui^Korean, "serving the great") policy that would characterize later Korean history.

This critical perspective continued after Korea's liberation from Japanese rule. Son Jin-tae, a pioneer of Korean folklore studies, while acknowledging Kim Yu-sin and Kim Chunchu's abilities, condemned their alliance with a foreign power to attack fellow Koreans as "the greatest sin" and a manifestation of the "non-ethnic essence of an aristocratic state." In 1993, Professor Kim Young-ha of Sungkyunkwan University argued that Silla, by relying on foreign forces to conquer only Baekje, "had no power or intention to complete unification," advocating for the use of "Silla and Balhae" or "North-South States Period" instead of "Unified Silla."

However, a counter-argument to this dichotomous view emphasizes the historical context. The criticism of Muyeol's "betrayal" often assumes a pre-existing notion of a unified "Korean people" among the Three Kingdoms. While historical texts like the *Old Book of Tang* note similarities in language and customs among Silla, Goguryeo, and Baekje, suggesting a shared identity, there were also significant differences in their founding myths, political systems, and cultural practices (e.g., Buyeo-origin vs. Samhan-origin). Centuries of fierce rivalry and warfare, particularly the irreparable break in the Na-Je Alliance after the death of King Seong in 554, had fostered deep-seated animosity. Kim Chunchu's 642 negotiation with Yeon Gaesomun failed because Goguryeo's demand for Silla's territories in the Han River basin was an existential threat. In this desperate situation, Muyeol's alliance with Tang was a pragmatic and, arguably, necessary choice for Silla's survival and expansion. The unification brought an end to centuries of internecine warfare, allowed Silla to absorb Baekje's territory, and facilitated the import of advanced Chinese culture. From Silla's perspective, gaining control of the territory south of the Daedong River was a significant territorial expansion, and the alliance with Tang was the best possible outcome against the strongest power of the time. This more nuanced evaluation acknowledges Muyeol's crucial role as a historical figure who made difficult choices in a complex geopolitical environment, rather than a simple hero or villain.

10.3. Impact on Korean History and Identity

King Muyeol's reign and his policies had profound and lasting consequences on the formation of a unified Korean state and its subsequent historical development. The absorption of Baekje's territory and Silla's control over the central and southern parts of the Korean Peninsula laid the foundational geographical and political framework for later unified Korean dynasties such as Goryeo and Joseon. The concept of "Samhan Il-tong" (삼한일통_{Samhan Il-tong}^Korean, "Unification of the Three Han"), a term used by Silla contemporaries to describe their achievement, was generally accepted without significant objection until the 19th century.

While the unification under Silla did not encompass the entire historical territory of Goguryeo, particularly its northern regions which were later absorbed by Tang or became part of Balhae, it nevertheless ended the prolonged period of the Three Kingdoms' rivalry. This established a single, dominant political entity on the peninsula, fostering a more cohesive cultural and national identity that would evolve over centuries. The alliance with Tang, though effective in achieving unification, also introduced an element of foreign influence and dependence that would become a recurring theme in Korean diplomatic history, contributing to the later debates on "Sadaejuui." Ultimately, King Muyeol's strategic vision and decisive actions irrevocably shaped the geopolitical landscape of the Korean Peninsula, setting the stage for a new era of unified governance and cultural development.

11.1. Detailed Genealogy

• Parents**
  • Father:** 김용수_{Kim Yongsu}^Korean (also known as 김용춘_{Kim Yongchun}^Korean; 578-647), posthumously honored as King Munheung.
    • Paternal Grandfather:** King Jinji of Silla, 25th monarch of Silla.
    • Paternal Grandmother:** Lady Jido of the Bak clan (지도부인 박씨_{Jidobuin Bakssi}^Korean).
  • Mother:** Princess Cheonmyeong (천명공주_{Cheonmyeong Gongju}^Korean), posthumously honored as Queen Munjeong.
    • Maternal Grandfather:** King Jinpyeong of Silla, 26th monarch of Silla.
    • Maternal Grandmother:** Queen Maya.
    • Consorts and their respective issue**

    1. **Princess Bora** (보라궁주_{Bora Gungju}^Korean) of the Gyeongju Seol clan. She was Muyeol's first wife and a cousin, being the daughter of 보종_Bojong^Korean (16th 풍월주_pungwolju^Korean) and Princess Yangmyeong (daughter of King Jinpyeong). She died in childbirth after their second child.

    • Daughter:** Lady Gotaso (고타소랑_Gotaso-rang^Korean; 627 - 642).
      • Son-in-law:** 김품석_{Kim Pumsok}^Korean.
    • Son:** 김문주_{Kim Munju}^Korean.
    • Second daughter** (name unrecorded).

    2. **Queen Munmyeong** (문명왕후_{Munmyeong Wanghu}^Korean), born 김문희_{Kim Munhee}^Korean, of the Gimhae Kim clan. She was the younger sister of Kim Yu-sin. She became Muyeol's queen after his first wife's death and his accession.

    • Son:** King Munmu of Silla (문무왕_{Munmu Wang}^Korean; 626 - 681), 30th monarch of Silla.
      • Daughter-in-law:** Queen Jaui Kim clan (자의왕후 김씨_{Jaui Wanghu Kimssi}^Korean), daughter of 파진찬_Pajinchan^Korean 김선품_{Kim Seonpum}^Korean.
        • Grandson:** King Sinmun of Silla, 31st monarch of Silla.
    • Son:** 김인문_{Kim Inmun}^Korean (629 - 694).
    • Son:** 김문왕_{Kim Munwang}^Korean (629 - 665), ancestor of the Gangneung Kim clan.
    • Son:** 김노차_{Kim Nocha}^Korean.
    • Son:** 김지경_{Kim Jigyeong}^Korean.
    • Son:** 김개원_{Kim Gaewon}^Korean.
    • Daughter:** Lady Jiso (지소부인_{Jiso Buin}^Korean). She married her maternal uncle, Kim Yu-sin, when he was 60 years old.
    • Daughter:** Great-grandmother of King Wonseong.

    3. **Kim Po-hui** (김보희_{Kim Bohui}^Korean), also known as Lady Yeonchang (영창부인_{Yeonchang Buin}^Korean), of the Gimhae Kim clan. She was the elder sister of Queen Munmyeong and Kim Yu-sin.

    • Son:** 김개지문_{Kim Kaejimun}^Korean.
    • Son:** 김차득_{Kim Chadeuk}^Korean.
    • Son:** 김마득_{Kim Madeuk}^Korean.
    • Daughter:** Princess Yoseok (요석공주_{Yoseok Gongju}^Korean).
      • Son-in-law:** 김흠운_{Kim Heumun}^Korean (? - 655), son of 소판_Sopan^Korean 김달복_{Kim Dalbok}^Korean. He died in battle against Baekje.
        • Granddaughter:** Queen Sinmok (신목왕후_{Sinmok Wanghu}^Korean), Queen of King Sinmun.
      • Son-in-law:** Wonhyo (원효_Wonhyo^Korean; 617-686), a prominent Silla Buddhist monk.
        • Grandson:** Seol Chong (설총_{Seol Chong}^Korean), a renowned Silla scholar.

        4. **Unknown consorts**

        • Historical records, including *Samguk Sagi* and *Samguk Yusa*, differ on the mothers of some of Muyeol's sons. While *Samguk Yusa* attributes Kim Munwang, Kim Nocha, Kim Jigyeong, and Kim Gaewon to Queen Munmyeong, *Samguk Sagi* lists them as sons of concubines. It is certain that Kim Intae, Kim Kaejimun, and Kim Madeok were sons of concubines.
          • Son:** 김인태_{Kim Intae}^Korean.

11.2. Other Family Members

• Maternal Aunt:** Queen Seondeok (선덕여왕_{Seondeok Yeowang}^Korean), 27th monarch of Silla.
• Maternal Aunt:** Princess Seonhwa (선화공주_{Seonhwa Gongju}^Korean).
  • Cousin:** King Uija of Baekje, 31st monarch of Baekje.
• Paternal Uncle:** 염장공_Yeomjanggong^Korean (17th 풍월주_pungwolju^Korean), half-brother of Kim Yongchun.