1. Early Life and Background
Lu Kang's early life was shaped by his distinguished family lineage and an upbringing that prepared him for a career in military and public service.
1.1. Birth and Family
Lu Kang was born in 226, with the courtesy name Youjie. He was the second son of Lu Xun, a renowned general and Imperial Chancellor of Eastern Wu. His mother was a daughter of Sun Ce, the elder brother and predecessor of Eastern Wu's founding emperor, Sun Quan, making him Sun Quan's maternal grandson. His ancestral home was in Wu Commandery (around present-day Suzhou, Jiangsu), Wu County. Although he had an elder brother, Lu Yan, who died early, Lu Kang was designated to inherit his father's titles. Lu Kang was married to a daughter of Zhang Cheng, who was also a niece of Zhuge Ke. However, following Zhuge Ke's downfall in 253, the Zhang family was implicated, and Lu Kang was compelled to divorce his wife. Lu Kang had six sons: Lu Yan, Lu Jing, Lu Xuan, Lu Ji, Lu Yun, and Lu Dan, along with three daughters.
1.2. Childhood and Education
Lu Kang was around 19 or 20 years old when his father, Lu Xun, died in 245. Following his father's death, Lu Kang was commissioned as Colonel Who Establishes Martial Might (建武校尉Chinese) and was entrusted with the command of 5,000 troops who had previously served under his father. He then escorted his father's coffin from Wuchang (武昌Chinese; present-day Ezhou, Hubei) back to their ancestral home in Wu Commandery for burial.
After the burial, Lu Kang traveled to the Wu capital, Jianye (建業Chinese; present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu), to pay his respects to Emperor Sun Quan. During this visit, Sun Quan, who still harbored suspicions against Lu Xun, presented Lu Kang with a list of 20 alleged offenses that Yang Zhu had accused Lu Xun of committing. Sun Quan forbade Lu Kang from meeting anyone and interrogated him with a panel of officials. Lu Kang cooperated fully, responding truthfully and logically to each accusation. His composed and reasoned replies gradually appeased Sun Quan's anger towards his late father. Later, in 251, when Lu Kang was recovering from an illness in Jianye, Sun Quan bid him farewell with tears, expressing regret for believing slanderous rumors against Lu Xun and for failing to understand his father's well-meaning advice. Sun Quan assured Lu Kang that he had burned all documents containing the allegations against Lu Xun so that no one could ever see them.
2. Career and Service
Lu Kang's career saw him steadily rise through various military and administrative posts, serving under four different emperors of Eastern Wu and demonstrating his capabilities in both defense and command.
2.1. During Sun Quan's Reign
In 246, Lu Kang was promoted from Colonel to General of the Household (中郎將Chinese) and was ordered to switch posts with Zhuge Ke, moving from Wuchang to Chaisang (柴桑Chinese; around present-day Jiujiang, Jiangxi). Before leaving Wuchang, Lu Kang meticulously repaired the city walls and renovated his residence, ensuring that his fruit orchards remained intact. When Zhuge Ke arrived in Chaisang, he was surprised to find a well-maintained residence, which contrasted sharply with the poor condition of his own former garrison at Chaisang, leaving him feeling ashamed.
2.2. During Sun Liang and Sun Xiu's Reigns
After Sun Quan's death in 252, his youngest son, Sun Liang, succeeded him. Sun Liang promoted Lu Kang to General of Vehement Might (奮威將軍Chinese (Chinese characters)). In 257, when Zhuge Dan, a general from Wu's rival state Wei, launched a rebellion in Shouchun (壽春Chinese; present-day Shou County, Anhui) and sought Wu's aid, Sun Liang appointed Lu Kang as the Area Commander of Chaisang. Lu Kang was ordered to lead troops to Shouchun to support Zhuge Dan. Although the rebellion was ultimately suppressed by Wei forces, Lu Kang managed to defeat some Wei units in battle, earning him a promotion to General Who Attacks the North (征北將軍Chinese (Chinese characters)). During this campaign, Lu Kang reportedly warned Zhu Yi not to meet Sun Lin, but Zhu Yi ignored the advice and was subsequently killed by Sun Lin.
In 259, under Sun Liang's successor, Sun Xiu, Lu Kang was appointed General Who Guards the Army (鎮軍將軍Chinese (Chinese characters)) and placed in charge of Xiling (西陵Chinese; around present-day Yichang, Hubei), overseeing the region from Guan Yu's Shallows to Baidicheng. The following year, he was granted acting imperial authority. In 264, after Shu Han's fall to Wei, Wu attempted to capture Yong'an (also known as Baidi City), which was defended by the former Shu general Luo Xian. Lu Kang led 30,000 troops, alongside Bu Xie, Liu Ping, and Sheng Man, to besiege Yong'an. Despite a six-month siege, they failed to capture the city due to Luo Xian's staunch resistance and the arrival of Jin reinforcements led by Hu Lie, forcing Lu Kang to withdraw.
2.3. Early Career under Sun Hao
When Sun Xiu died in 264 and was succeeded by his nephew Sun Hao, Lu Kang's influence continued to grow. Sun Hao promoted him to Senior General Who Guards the Army (鎮軍大將軍Chinese (Chinese characters)) and nominally appointed him Governor of Yi Province (益州牧Chinese), despite Yi Province not being under Wu's control. In 269, Lu Kai, a cousin of Lu Kang and the Left Imperial Chancellor, recommended Lu Kang and other talented individuals to Sun Hao, urging the emperor to rely on them. After Lu Kai's death, Sun Hao, who had resented Lu Kai, intended to persecute his family, but was reportedly deterred by Lu Kang's power and influence.
In 270, following the death of Grand Marshal Shi Ji, Sun Hao placed Lu Kang in charge of overseeing military affairs in Xinling (信陵Chinese), Xiling (西陵Chinese), Yidao (夷道Chinese), Le District (樂鄉Chinese (Chinese characters)), and Gong'an counties, with his administrative center established at Le District (east of present-day Songzi, Hubei).
3. Major Military Activities
Lu Kang's military career was defined by his strategic brilliance and his crucial role in defending Eastern Wu, particularly during the pivotal Battle of Xiling.
3.1. Defense and Command of Jing Province
Lu Kang's command of Jing Province was critical for Eastern Wu, as it served as a vital strategic gateway. His administrative center at Le District placed him in a key position to oversee the defenses of Xinling, Xiling, Yidao, and Gong'an, all of which were crucial for protecting Wu's western and southern borders from incursions by Jin forces and managing local tribes. His long tenure and deep understanding of the region's geography and defenses proved invaluable.
3.2. Battle of Xiling
The Battle of Xiling in 272 was a defining moment in Lu Kang's career, showcasing his exceptional strategic acumen and determination.
3.2.1. Suppression of Rebellion and Siege
In 272, Bu Chan, the military commander stationed at Xiling, rebelled against Eastern Wu and sought to defect to the Jin dynasty. Upon receiving news of the revolt, Lu Kang immediately dispatched his subordinates, including Zuo Yi (左奕Chinese), Wu Yan, and Cai Gong (蔡貢Chinese), to lead separate forces directly towards Xiling. He ordered them to construct a formidable defensive encirclement from Chixi (赤谿Chinese) to Gushi (故市Chinese), designed to both besiege Bu Chan within the city and ward off any incoming Jin reinforcements. Lu Kang pressed his troops to work day and night, as if the enemy had already arrived, which caused considerable hardship among the soldiers.
His subordinates initially questioned this approach, suggesting that they should immediately attack Bu Chan with their current strength before Jin forces could arrive. Lu Kang, however, explained that Xiling's fortifications were exceptionally strong and well-supplied, having been personally overseen by him during their construction. He argued that a direct assault would not easily succeed, and without adequate defensive structures, they would be trapped between Bu Chan and the Jin army, leaving them vulnerable. Despite repeated urging from his officers, Lu Kang refused to change his strategy. Eventually, Lei Tan (雷譚Chinese), the Administrator of Yidu Commandery, earnestly persuaded him to allow a single assault. Lu Kang relented to prove his point, and as he expected, the attack failed to capture the city. This confirmed his judgment, and his officers subsequently complied with his orders to complete the defensive encirclement.
3.2.2. Confrontation with Jin and Strategy
As Jin forces, led by Yang Hu, advanced towards Jiangling County, Wu officers advised Lu Kang to abandon the siege of Xiling and return to defend Jiangling. Lu Kang, however, maintained his strategic focus on Xiling, arguing that Jiangling's fortifications were strong and well-manned, and even if it fell, it would be a minor loss that Jin could not hold for long. In contrast, if Xiling remained a rebel stronghold, it would destabilize the southern tribes, leading to far greater problems for Wu. He declared that he would rather abandon Jiangling than give up on capturing Xiling.
Jiangling was situated on flat lands, making it easily accessible. Lu Kang had previously ordered Zhang Xian (張咸Chinese (Chinese characters)), the Jiangling commander, to construct a large dyke to block the river's flow and flood the surrounding flatlands, creating a water barrier against invaders. When Yang Hu arrived, he planned to use this flooded area for boat-transported supplies, but spread false rumors that he intended to destroy the dyke to allow his land army to pass. Lu Kang, seeing through Yang Hu's deception, immediately ordered Zhang Xian to destroy the dyke. His officers were shocked and tried to dissuade him, believing he was aiding the enemy, but Lu Kang ignored them. When Yang Hu reached Dangyang (當陽Chinese; southwest of present-day Jingmen, Hubei), he was dismayed to learn the dyke had been destroyed, forcing him to transport supplies by land, which caused significant delays and effort.
Meanwhile, Xu Yin (徐胤Chinese), the commander of the Jin garrison at Badong Commandery (巴東郡Chinese; around present-day Fengjie County, Chongqing), led naval forces towards Jianping (建平Chinese; around present-day Zigui County, Hubei), while Yang Zhao (楊肇Chinese (Chinese characters)), the Inspector of Jing Province (under Jin control), led troops towards Xiling. Lu Kang issued precise orders: Zhang Xian was to reinforce Jiangling's defenses; Sun Zun (孫遵Chinese (Chinese characters)), the Commandant of Gong'an, was to patrol the south river bank and resist Yang Hu; and Liu Lü (留慮Chinese) and Zhu Wan (朱琬Chinese) were to guard against Xu Yin's attacks. Lu Kang personally led three armies to confront Yang Zhao, utilizing the defensive structures they had built.
During the confrontation, two of Lu Kang's subordinates, Zhu Qiao (朱喬Chinese) and Yu Zan (俞贊Chinese), defected to Yang Zhao. Lu Kang, anticipating that Yu Zan, being an old subordinate, would reveal the perceived weakness of his tribal soldiers, immediately replaced them with trusted veteran soldiers overnight. The next day, as Lu Kang had predicted, Yang Zhao concentrated his attacks on the former position of the tribal soldiers, unaware of the change. Lu Kang ordered his archers to retaliate, unleashing a barrage of arrows that inflicted heavy casualties on the Jin forces.
After approximately a month, Yang Zhao, having exhausted his strategies, decided to withdraw his army under the cover of night. Lu Kang considered pursuing them but was wary of Bu Chan, who was still inside Xiling, potentially launching a rear attack, and he lacked sufficient troops for a full pursuit. Instead, he ordered his men to beat drums and feign a large-scale pursuit. Terrified, Yang Zhao's troops abandoned their armor and equipment and fled in disarray. Lu Kang then sent a small contingent of lightly-armed soldiers to pursue, inflicting a crushing defeat on the retreating enemy. Upon learning of Yang Zhao's defeat, Yang Hu and the other Jin generals also withdrew their armies. Lu Kang then launched a final assault and successfully captured Xiling. Bu Chan, along with his family and high-ranking officers, were executed for treason, but Lu Kang requested and was granted pardon for over 10,000 others. After repairing Xiling's fortifications, Lu Kang returned east to Le District. His humility after this great victory, maintaining his usual demeanor, earned him the deep respect and affection of his officers and soldiers.
4. Diplomacy and Foreign Relations
Lu Kang's statesmanship extended beyond military command to include remarkable diplomatic efforts, particularly his cultivation of peace with the rival Jin dynasty along the border.
4.1. Interaction with Yang Hu and Peace Policy
Lu Kang developed an extraordinary relationship with the Jin general Yang Hu, despite their opposing allegiances. Their friendship was likened to the historical bonds between Zichan and Jizha, or Hua Yuan and Zifan, figures known for their mutual respect across rival states during the Spring and Autumn period. Lu Kang once sent wine to Yang Hu, who drank it without any suspicion. Similarly, when Lu Kang fell ill, Yang Hu sent him medicine, which Lu Kang also took without hesitation, despite his subordinates' concerns that Yang Hu might be trying to harm him. Yang Hu reportedly stated that the medicine was of fine quality, prepared by himself, and sent immediately upon hearing of Lu Kang's illness.
Yang Hu actively promoted morality and civility in the Jin border regions, which greatly impressed many Wu citizens. Lu Kang, recognizing this, instructed his own forces stationed at the Wu-Jin border: "If they govern with virtue and we administer our state like tyrants, we will lose the war without even having to fight. I hope that you can guard the border well and not stir up problems over trivial matters." This mutual understanding led to a period of remarkable peace and stability along the Wu-Jin border, where both sides actively practiced détente and coexisted harmoniously. If cattle from one side accidentally strayed across the border, the other side would allow the owners to cross and retrieve them. During hunting expeditions, if citizens from either side were injured, the other would safely send them home.
When Emperor Sun Hao received news of these peaceful relations, he sent a messenger to reprimand Lu Kang. Lu Kang, however, defended his actions, stating, "Even ordinary peasants in the countryside must keep their promises, much less me, a government official. If I do not live by these virtues, I will appear as a stark contrast to Yang Hu. This does not result in any harm to Yang Hu." While some contemporaries criticized both Yang Hu and Lu Kang for seemingly compromising their loyalty to their respective states, their actions fostered an unusual period of cross-border amity. This unique relationship gave rise to the idiom `羊陸之交Yang-Lu zhī jiāoChinese`, meaning "the friendship of Yang and Lu," signifying a deep personal bond that transcends political boundaries.
The historian Xi Zuochi, author of the Han Jin Chunqiu, commented on this phenomenon, explaining that Yang Hu's strategy was to win over the people of Wu through benevolence and kindness, thereby reducing their fighting spirit and changing their perceptions of Jin. Lu Kang, aware of Sun Hao's tyrannical rule and Wu's weakening foundation, recognized that his people were beginning to admire Jin's benevolent policies. He therefore decided to apply similar policies within Wu-maintaining peace, helping the poor, and opposing tyranny-in the hope of gaining an advantage over his rival. He aimed to set an example by living virtuously and spreading this way of life throughout his state, believing that this would allow him to defeat the enemy without military force, defend his state without relying on fortifications, and subdue the enemy through virtue rather than cunning.
5. Political Advice and Policy Proposals
Lu Kang consistently acted as a conscientious advisor to Emperor Sun Hao, offering critical policy recommendations and warnings for the welfare and survival of Eastern Wu, often at great personal risk.
5.1. Memorials to Sun Hao
Lu Kang was deeply concerned by the numerous flaws he observed in the Wu government's policies. He frequently submitted memorials to Sun Hao, addressing various critical issues.
5.1.1. Proposing 17 Policy Changes
Upon hearing of the many shortcomings in the capital's governance, Lu Kang wrote a comprehensive memorial to Sun Hao. In it, he argued that promoting morality could turn a minority into a majority, and conditioning strengths could transform a dangerous situation into a safe one, citing historical examples like Qin's unification and Emperor Gao of Han's conquest of Western Chu. He warned that Wu was surrounded by enemies and faced more complex situations than during the Warring States period or the Chu-Han Contention, lacking external allies and internal strength. He stressed that relying solely on natural defenses was a last resort, not a wise primary solution. Lu Kang expressed his profound worry, stating he could not sleep or eat in peace, constantly reflecting on the downfalls of past dynasties. He emphasized his loyalty as a subject, bound to serve the state faithfully until death, even if it meant offending the emperor. He humbly proposed 17 amendments to Wu's policies, though the specific details of these proposals have been lost to history.
5.1.2. Speaking Up Against Corruption
When the official He Ding (何定Chinese) began abusing his authority and eunuchs started interfering in state affairs, Lu Kang submitted another memorial to Sun Hao. He cautioned against employing "persons of vile character," echoing ancient texts like the Canon of Yao which warned against trusting those whose actions did not match their words. He pointed out that such villains had caused the downfall of empires throughout history, from the Spring and Autumn period to the Qin and Han dynasties. He argued that such individuals, with their myopic views and contemptible characters, should never be entrusted with important responsibilities, regardless of how conscientious they might appear. Lu Kang urged Sun Hao to dismiss incompetent officials and restructure the government to clear it of corruption, advocating for the utilization of talented individuals from both affluent and humble backgrounds.
5.1.3. Speaking Up Against Cruel Laws
After the Battle of Xiling, Lu Kang was promoted to Protector-General (都護Chinese). Upon learning that Xue Ying, the Left Commandant of Wuchang, had been imprisoned, Lu Kang wrote a memorial to Sun Hao advocating for leniency and reform of harsh legal practices. He emphasized that talented individuals were vital assets to the state, essential for effective governance and attracting further talent. He cited the cases of Minister of Finance Lou Xuan, Central Regular Mounted Attendant Wang Fan, and Minister Steward Li Xu, who, despite being talented, were quickly punished, some with their families implicated or exiled, others even executed without clear guilt.
Lu Kang invoked ancient legal principles from the Rites of Zhou (pardoning virtuous men), the Spring and Autumn Annals (forgiveness), and the Classic of History ("Instead of killing innocent people by mistake, why not abandon the practice?"). He expressed agony over loyal individuals being subjected to torturous executions and their bodies being burned and dumped into rivers-practices he deemed unorthodox and contrary to ancient rulers' principles. While acknowledging that Wang Fan and Li Xu were beyond regret, he sincerely hoped for Lou Xuan's release and pleaded for Xue Ying's pardon, noting Xue Ying's father, Xue Zong, had served the late emperor, and Xue Ying himself had inherited his father's reputation. Lu Kang feared that judicial officers might not investigate thoroughly, leading to the killing of innocents and public disappointment. He begged Sun Hao to pardon Xue Ying, relax the laws, and clear the legal system, asserting that this would greatly benefit the state.
5.1.4. Advising Against Waging War
As battles between Wu and Jin became constant, causing widespread suffering among the populace, Lu Kang submitted another memorial to Sun Hao. He referenced the Yijing, which emphasized adapting to changing times and discerning others' flaws, citing how Tang of Shang and King Wu of Zhou overthrew corrupt rulers when the time was right. He criticized Sun Hao for not focusing on strengthening the military, enriching the state, or promoting agriculture, leading to officials neglecting their duties and public unrest.
Lu Kang urged Sun Hao to be more discerning in rewards and punishments, promote moral values among officials, and rule with benevolence, thereby aligning with Heaven's will to unite the Empire. He warned against allowing officials to act lawlessly, actively waging war against Jin, and using the imperial treasury for personal pleasures. He pointed out that the soldiers were weary, the enemy had not weakened, and he himself was seriously ill. Lu Kang advised against pursuing policies suggested by "villainous officials" for minor gains, drawing a parallel to the states of Qi and Lu, where Lu, despite winning two out of three battles, was eventually conquered by Qi because it failed to accurately assess its position. He concluded that Wu's current victories did not compensate for its losses, and that history clearly showed people hated war. He sincerely hoped Sun Hao would follow ancient advice, stop the war, focus on recuperation, and observe the enemy's weaknesses, lest he face future regret.
5.1.5. Final Advice to Sun Hao
In 273, Lu Kang was appointed Grand Marshal (大司馬Chinese (Chinese characters)) and Governor of Jing Province (荊州牧Chinese). In the summer of 274, as he fell gravely ill, he wrote a final memorial to Sun Hao, expressing his deep concern for Wu's survival. He highlighted the critical strategic importance of Xiling and Jianping as the state's borders, located downstream and facing enemies on two sides. He warned that if Jin were to launch a swift naval attack downriver, reinforcements from other areas would arrive too late, posing an existential threat to the state, far more serious than losing a small piece of border land.
Lu Kang recalled his late father's words, who, stationed at the western border, had stated that Xiling was Wu's western gateway, easy to defend yet also easy to lose. He emphasized that if Xiling were not adequately strengthened, Wu would lose not just one commandery but the entire Jing Province. He urged Sun Hao to mobilize all available forces to reinforce Xiling if it came under attack. He also lamented that his earlier request for 30,000 elite troops had been denied by officials. Lu Kang described his current command of thousands of li of land, surrounded by powerful enemies externally and various tribes internally, with only a few tens of thousands of weary troops, ill-prepared for sudden changes.
He humbly proposed that since the princes were still young and not involved in state affairs, their personal guards could be reassigned as reserve soldiers. He also reported that many eunuchs were secretly recruiting personal militias, causing men to join them to avoid conscription. He suggested a thorough investigation to catch these draft dodgers and send them to areas lacking manpower. His goal was to muster 80,000 troops, allow his current men to rest, and ensure fairer rewards and punishments. He warned that without these changes, even legendary generals like Han Xin and Bai Qi could not resolve the crisis. Lu Kang concluded by stating that if he lacked sufficient troops, he could not fulfill his duty, and if he died, he hoped Sun Hao would pay closer attention to the western border, wishing his advice would be accepted so he would not have died in vain. Lu Kang died in the autumn of 274, shortly after submitting this final memorial.
6. Posthumous Appraisal and Influence
Lu Kang's legacy is characterized by his unwavering loyalty, military genius, and moral integrity, leaving a lasting impact on historical evaluations and literary depictions.
6.1. Historical Appraisal
Historians have consistently praised Lu Kang. Chen Shou, who authored Lu Kang's biography in the Records of the Three Kingdoms, commented that Lu Kang was "loyal and faithful to his state, and was very capable and talented, much like his father. He had excellent moral conduct worthy of praise. He was also able to handle the overall situation well without neglecting details. He was thus able to accomplish such great tasks!" Lu Kang was posthumously honored with the title of Wuhou (武侯).
He Chong, a Jin dynasty official, famously remarked that "Lu Kang was such that if he lived, Wu lived; if he died, Wu died," highlighting his indispensable role in sustaining Eastern Wu. Lu Kang was also included, alongside his father Lu Xun, in the Tang dynasty's list of 64 Famous Generals, recognized for his significant contributions to military history.
However, some historical accounts also note criticisms of Lu Kang. For instance, after suppressing Bu Chan's rebellion, Lu Kang ordered the execution of infants, which some principled individuals condemned, predicting that his descendants would suffer retribution for this act.
6.2. Descendants and Family
Lu Kang died in the autumn of 274, between August 20 and September 17. His eldest son, Lu Yan, inherited his titles. Lu Yan and his younger brothers-Lu Jing, Lu Xuan, Lu Ji, and Lu Yun-shared command of their father's troops and continued to serve as generals in Wu. Lu Kang also had a sixth son, Lu Dan, who was younger than Lu Yun, and three daughters.
Lu Yan was commissioned as a Major-General (裨將軍Chinese (Chinese characters)) and served as the commander of Yidao. In 280, the Jin dynasty launched its final campaign against Eastern Wu. The Jin general Wang Jun led a naval fleet eastward along the Yangtze River, capturing all Wu territories along the way, precisely as Lu Kang had foreseen in his final advice to Sun Hao about strengthening western defenses. Lu Yan was killed in battle against Wang Jun's forces on March 22, 280. Lu Jing, who also served as a general in Wu, was killed in action during the Jin conquest of Wu at the age of 31. Lu Ji, Lu Yun, and Lu Dan all came to serve the Jin dynasty after the fall of Wu. However, they, along with their families, were tragically executed during the War of the Eight Princes, bringing an end to the direct lineage of Lu Kang's prominent scholarly sons.
6.3. Literary Depiction
Lu Kang is notably depicted in the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, appearing in chapters 119 and 120. In the novel, after the fall of Shu Han, Emperor Sun Xiu appoints Lu Kang as Zhen Dong General and Governor of Jing Province to defend against Jin forces. The novel portrays Lu Kang's strategic confrontation with Jin general Yang Hu, but deviates from historical accounts by depicting Emperor Sun Hao as suspicious of Lu Kang's peaceful interactions with Yang Hu, leading to Lu Kang's demotion. This fictional demotion, which did not occur historically, is then used as a catalyst for Yang Hu to immediately propose an invasion of Wu to the Jin court. Despite this fictionalized element, the novel, like historical records, highlights the unique and respectful relationship between Lu Kang and Yang Hu, which became the basis for the Chinese idiom `羊陸之交Yang-Lu zhī jiāoChinese`, signifying a deep friendship between rivals.