Li Si

2.1. Early Life and Education

Li Si was a native of Shang Cai in the ancient State of Chu, which is located in modern-day Zhumadian City, Henan province. In his youth, he served as a minor functionary within the local administration of Chu, managing clerical duties. A pivotal moment in his early life, as recounted in the Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian, involved his observation of rats. He noticed that rats in the outhouse were perpetually dirty, hungry, and terrified of people and dogs, while rats in the barn were well-fed, comfortable, and undisturbed. This observation led him to a profound realization: "There is no set standard for honor since everyone's life is different. The values of people are determined by their social status. And like rats, people's social status often depends purely on the random life events around them. And so instead of always being restricted by moral codes, people should do what they deemed best at the moment." This realization ignited his ambition to pursue a political career, a common path for educated scholars not from noble families during the Warring States period.

Unable to advance his career significantly in Chu, Li Si believed that failing to achieve greatness despite his intelligence and education would bring shame upon himself and other scholars. He pursued his studies under the renowned Confucian philosopher Xunzi (also known as Xun Kuang or Xun Qing), who was a prominent figure in the Hundred Schools of Thought. Xunzi was known for his realistic and pragmatic approach to governance, influencing Li Si's later adherence to Legalist principles. After completing his education, Li Si decided to relocate to the State of Qin, which was the most powerful and ascendant state at the time, seeking to further his political ambitions.

2.2. Career Start in Qin

Upon his arrival in Qin, Li Si became a guest of Lü Buwei, who then served as the Chancellor of Qin. This affiliation provided Li Si with the crucial opportunity to meet King Ying Zheng, who would later become Qin Shi Huang, the First Emperor of unified China. Li Si immediately recognized the immense power of the Qin state but cautioned King Zheng that unification would remain elusive if the other six states of the Warring States period united against Qin. He proposed a strategy centered on exploiting internal divisions among the rival states and actively weakening them. Qin Shi Huang was deeply impressed by Li Si's strategic vision for unification and adopted his proposal. The Qin ruler subsequently invested heavily in attracting intellectuals to Qin and dispatching assassins to eliminate important scholars and officials in other states, thereby destabilizing them.

Around 237 BC, as Li Si's influence grew, a faction within the Qin court, fearing espionage and disloyalty, urged King Zheng to expel all foreigners from the state. As a native of Chu, Li Si became a target of this "expulsion of guest officers" policy. In response, he penned the famous Jianzhuke Shu (Petition against the Expulsion of Guest Officers), a masterfully articulated memorial explaining the numerous benefits that foreign officials, including himself, brought to Qin. He persuasively argued that Qin's success owed much to the contributions of non-native talents. King Zheng was swayed by Li Si's eloquent rhetoric, revoked the expulsion order, and, impressed by his abilities, promoted him to the position of Tingwei, the official in charge of judiciary.

In 234 BC, Li Si further demonstrated his strategic acumen by urging King Zheng to annex the neighboring State of Han as a means of intimidating the remaining five states. It was around this time that Han Fei, a member of the Han aristocracy and a fellow student of Xunzi, arrived in Qin on a diplomatic mission to resolve the situation. Li Si, who harbored deep envy for Han Fei's superior intellect and literary prowess, saw him as a direct threat to his own position and influence. Li Si cunningly persuaded King Zheng that Han Fei was too talented to be allowed to return to Han (where his abilities would pose a threat to Qin) and too untrustworthy to be employed in Qin (as his loyalty would always be to Han). Consequently, Han Fei was imprisoned, and in 233 BC, Li Si convinced him to commit suicide by taking poison. The State of Han was subsequently conquered by Qin in 230 BC.

3.1. Role in China's Unification

Li Si was a crucial architect of Qin's strategy to unify China. He provided King Zheng with strategic advice that focused on consolidating Qin's internal strength while weakening rival states. He advocated for a policy of aggressive military expansion combined with political subversion, including bribing officials and dispatching assassins to sow discord and eliminate key figures in competing states. His counsel was instrumental in the successful military campaigns that eventually led to the conquest of the six warring states and the establishment of the Qin Empire in 221 BC.

Upon the unification, Li Si vehemently opposed the restoration of the feudal system, which had led to fragmentation and constant warfare during the Zhou dynasty. Instead, he strongly advocated for the complete implementation of the commandery and prefecture system (郡縣制_{Jùnxiànzhì}^Chinese), where the empire was divided into centrally controlled administrative units governed by appointed officials rather than hereditary lords. He argued that this system was essential for maintaining a strong, centralized government and preventing future civil strife. He also proposed a merit-based government, ensuring that positions of power were granted to capable ministers rather than solely to members of the imperial clan. Li Si's insistence on this centralized bureaucracy laid the groundwork for imperial administration in China for millennia.

3.2. Standardization of Systems and Culture

Li Si was a driving force behind a sweeping series of standardization reforms critical to the consolidation and efficient governance of the newly unified empire. He played a key role in unifying diverse legal codes, governmental ordinances, and administrative procedures across the vast territory. He oversaw the standardization of weights and measures, currency, and even the dimensions of chariots and carts, which facilitated trade, transportation, and communication throughout China.

Perhaps one of his most enduring contributions was the standardization of the written Chinese language. He promulgated the small seal script (小篆_Xiǎozhuàn^Chinese) as the imperial standard, which had already been in use in Qin. This process involved proscribing variant glyphs within the Qin script itself, as well as eliminating the numerous variant scripts used in the conquered regions. This reform had a profound and lasting unifying effect on Chinese culture, promoting literacy and administrative efficiency across the empire for thousands of years.

Furthermore, Li Si contributed to the pacification of frontier regions by subduing northern and southern "barbarian" tribes. He ordered the melting down of the metal weapons of the defeated feudal states, casting them into bells and massive human statues in the Qin capital, Xianyang. While generally associated with strict Legalist governance, historical accounts also suggest he lowered taxes and eased some of the more draconian punishments for criminals that had originated from the earlier statesman Shang Yang, although he remained a proponent of harsh legal enforcement in general.

3.3. Thought Control and Book Burning

A highly controversial aspect of Li Si's legacy is his significant involvement in the policies of intellectual suppression, most notably the infamous burning of books and burying of scholars. After Qin Shi Huang became emperor, Li Si persuaded him that intellectual dissent posed a serious threat to the stability of the state and the emperor's authority. Li Si argued that while books on practical subjects like medicine, agriculture, and prophecy could be tolerated, political and historical texts were dangerous in the hands of the public, as they could be used by "free-thinking" scholars to criticize the government and incite rebellion by referencing past events.

In 213 BC, Li Si himself penned the edict ordering the widespread destruction of historical records and literature, particularly targeting Confucian texts, which he viewed as detrimental to the welfare of the state and a source of opposition to Legalist principles. The edict stipulated that all books, except those pertaining to medicine, divination, and agriculture, were to be burned. Anyone who failed to comply within 30 days would be tattooed and sent to forced labor. The only political books allowed were those held by the state, and only state-run schools were permitted to educate political scholars.

In 212 BC, following the escape of a group of alchemists who had failed to find the elixir of immortality for Qin Shi Huang, a mass arrest and execution of scholars occurred. While the exact numbers and reasons are debated, it is commonly held that around 460 Confucian scholars were buried alive, sometimes referred to as the "burying of scholars." Li Si's role in advocating for and implementing these policies severely curtailed academic freedom, led to the irreparable loss of invaluable historical and philosophical texts, and cemented his reputation as a ruthless enforcer of authoritarian rule.

4.1. Legalist Ideology

Li Si was a devout adherent of Legalist ideology, a school of thought that emerged during the Warring States period. Legalism advocated for a centralized, autocratic government, emphasizing strict laws, harsh punishments, and absolute state power as the most effective means to achieve order and stability. Unlike Confucianism, which focused on moral governance and the cultivation of virtuous rulers, Legalism believed that human nature was inherently selfish and required rigid legal frameworks to control and direct.

Li Si's policies, such as the commandery and prefecture system, the standardization of laws, and the suppression of intellectual dissent, all reflected core Legalist principles. He believed that the state's welfare was paramount, and individual freedoms and dissenting opinions should be subordinated to the interests of the ruling power. His implementation of a merit-based system also aligned with Legalist ideals, promoting efficiency and loyalty to the state above hereditary privilege.

4.2. Relationships with Key Thinkers

Li Si's intellectual foundations were significantly influenced by his teacher, Xunzi. Although Xunzi was a Confucian, he held a more pragmatic and realistic view of human nature, believing that individuals needed strict discipline and education to become morally upright, a perspective that resonated with Legalist emphasis on order. This influence is evident in Li Si's advocacy for a structured and disciplined society.

Li Si also admired and drew upon the administrative techniques of other prominent Legalists, particularly Shen Buhai and Han Fei. Shen Buhai's focus on administrative methods, particularly the concept of shu (technique or statecraft), which involved the impartial application of rules and surveillance of officials, greatly influenced Li Si's approach to governance. He repeatedly referred to Shen Buhai's techniques.

His relationship with Han Fei, a fellow student under Xunzi and a formidable Legalist philosopher himself, was complex and ultimately tragic. While Li Si utilized and admired Han Fei's ideas, he also harbored intense professional jealousy. This envy famously led him to engineer Han Fei's imprisonment and forced suicide in 233 BC, demonstrating Li Si's ruthlessness and willingness to eliminate rivals to secure his own position. Despite this, Li Si's approach to law and order also incorporated elements from Shang Yang, another influential Legalist who had earlier implemented harsh legal reforms in Qin. Li Si's philosophy thus represented a synthesis of various Legalist doctrines, applied with an uncompromising pragmatism to build and maintain the Qin Empire.

5.1. Power Struggle and Downfall

In 210 BC, while on a grand inspection tour, Qin Shi Huang unexpectedly died far from the capital, at Shaqiu. The emperor's death presented a critical moment for the succession. Qin Shi Huang had designated his eldest son, Crown Prince Fusu, as his successor. However, Fusu was known to be close to the general Meng Tian, and Li Si feared that if Fusu ascended the throne, he might replace Li Si with Meng Tian as Chancellor, leading to Li Si's loss of power.

Seizing this opportunity, Li Si conspired with the chief eunuch Zhao Gao, who was also a trusted advisor to Qin Shi Huang and held significant influence over the imperial seals and documents. Together, they suppressed the late emperor's authentic will and fabricated a forged edict. This fake decree ordered Fusu and General Meng Tian to commit suicide, accusing them of disloyalty and incompetence. Fusu, upon receiving the forged imperial order, dutifully committed suicide, while Meng Tian was arrested and later forced to die. In Fusu's place, Li Si and Zhao Gao installed Qin Shi Huang's younger and more pliable eighteenth son, Qin Er Shi (also known as Hu Hai), as the second emperor. This betrayal of the deceased emperor's wishes marked a turning point in Li Si's fate and contributed significantly to the instability that plagued the Qin dynasty.

Under Qin Er Shi, Zhao Gao quickly consolidated his power, installing his loyalists into key official positions. The new emperor, being weak and inexperienced, was easily manipulated by Zhao Gao, whom he regarded as his teacher. As Zhao Gao's control over the court tightened, he began to systematically undermine Li Si. When Zhao Gao's power base became sufficiently secure, he accused Li Si of treason. Qin Er Shi, blindly trusting Zhao Gao, did not question the charges. Li Si, along with Right Chancellor Feng Quji and General Feng Jie, attempted to advise Qin Er Shi to cease his extravagant construction projects, such as the Epang Palace, and address the growing unrest. Their advice was ignored, and Feng Quji and Feng Jie ultimately committed suicide in despair.

Li Si persisted in his efforts to counsel the emperor, but his pleas only earned him the emperor's displeasure and further fueled Zhao Gao's malicious machinations. Zhao Gao then fabricated charges against Li Si, including allegations that Li Si's eldest son, Li You, who was the governor of Sanchuan, had conspired with the rebellious forces of Xiang Liang and Wu Guang. Li Si was arrested in 208 BC and subjected to horrific torture.

5.2. Execution

Under immense duress and brutal torture, Li Si was forced to confess to the fabricated crimes. Zhao Gao even intercepted a letter of pleas that Li Si had managed to send to Emperor Qin Er Shi, ensuring it never reached the emperor.

In 208 BC, at the public market in Xianyang, the capital, Li Si was condemned to the Five Punishments. These varied historically but typically involved a combination of brutal mutilations, culminating in death. In Li Si's case, he was executed by waist chop (腰斬_Yāozhǎn^Chinese), a particularly gruesome method where the condemned was cut in half at the waist, ensuring a slow and agonizing death. As a final act of merciless punishment, his entire family was exterminated to the third degree, meaning all relatives up to three generations were put to death.

Sima Qian records Li Si's poignant last words to his second son, who was brought to the execution ground with him: "I wish that you and I could take our brown dog and go out through the eastern gate of Shang Cai to chase the crafty hare. But how could we do that!" This expressed a yearning for a simple, peaceful life that had been lost amidst the cutthroat political struggles. Li Si's death underscored the ruthless nature of Qin justice and the perilous consequences of engaging in imperial power struggles.

6.1. Historical Merits and Demerits

Li Si is widely regarded as one of the most influential figures in early Chinese history due to his pivotal role in the Qin dynasty's success. His unwavering belief in a highly bureaucratic and centralized system was central to the efficiency of the Qin state and the triumph of its military conquest, which unified China. He was instrumental in systematizing standard measures, currency, and, most notably, the written Chinese language by promulgating the small seal script as the imperial standard. These efforts had a profound unifying effect on Chinese culture, fostering administrative cohesion and cultural identity for thousands of years. The establishment of a government based on merit, where competent officials were appointed regardless of noble birth, also laid a foundation for future imperial administration.

However, Li Si's contributions are inseparable from the severe criticisms of his authoritarianism and his disregard for human rights and intellectual freedom. His most condemned acts include his active role in the burning of books and burying of scholars, which resulted in the irreversible loss of invaluable historical and philosophical texts and brutally suppressed intellectual dissent. This intellectual repression stunted the development of diverse thought and established a dangerous precedent for future regimes. Furthermore, his ruthless machinations, such as the assassination of his former peer Han Fei out of professional jealousy and his complicity in manipulating the imperial succession after Qin Shi Huang's death, demonstrate a profound moral failing and an overreaching ambition that prioritized personal power over ethical governance. Historians argue that his actions, particularly the fraudulent enthronement of the weak Qin Er Shi and the subsequent internal instability, directly contributed to the rapid collapse of the Qin dynasty shortly after his death. While Sima Qian acknowledged Li Si's profound impact, he also suggested that had Li Si not deviated from a righteous path, his accomplishments could have rivaled those of revered figures like the Duke of Zhou and Duke Shao, implicitly criticizing Li Si's moral choices.

6.2. Literary Achievements

Beyond his political and philosophical impact, Li Si was also a skilled writer and calligrapher, leaving behind a notable legacy in Chinese literature and epigraphy. His prose style was highly regarded, with some critics like Lu Xun praising him as the sole literary figure of the Qin era. His most famous work is the Jianzhuke Shu (Petition against the Expulsion of Guest Officers), a masterfully crafted and rhetorically powerful essay that successfully persuaded King Zheng to rescind the order expelling foreign officials. This work is considered a classic example of early Chinese argumentative prose and was even included in the later literary anthology Wen Xuan.

Li Si's literary contributions also extend to his role in standardizing the Chinese script. He was responsible for developing and promulgating the small seal script, which became the official writing style of the Qin dynasty. He also authored the Cangjiepian, an elementary primer for learning Chinese characters, which served as a foundational text for linguistic education in the empire. Although the original work is largely lost, fragments have been rediscovered in the 20th century. Additionally, many of the stone inscriptions commissioned by Qin Shi Huang to commemorate his achievements during his imperial tours, such as those on Mount Tai, Langya, Yishan, and Kuaiji, are attributed to Li Si's calligraphy and composition, offering valuable insights into Qin policies and culture.

7.1. Key Works and Inscriptions

Li Si's most renowned literary work is the Jianzhuke Shu (Petition against the Expulsion of Guest Officers). This eloquent and persuasive memorial, written in 237 BC, is a testament to his rhetorical skill and administrative acumen, successfully convincing King Zheng to reverse the expulsion order against foreign officials.

He is also credited with compiling the Cangjiepian (蒼頡篇_{Cāngjiépiān}^Chinese), an elementary primer for learning Chinese characters. While the original Cangjiepian has largely been lost over time, fragments of the text have been rediscovered in the 20th century among historical bamboo slips, such as the Dunhuang manuscripts and Juyan Han wooden slips. This work was instrumental in the standardization of the Chinese written language and played a significant role in early linguistic education within the Qin Empire.

Furthermore, Li Si composed several important stone inscriptions (刻石_Kèshí^Chinese) commissioned by Qin Shi Huang to commemorate his unification of China and his various imperial policies. These include inscriptions found on:

• Mount Tai (泰山刻石)
• Langya (琅邪刻石)
• Yishan (嶧山刻石)
• Kuaiji (會稽刻石)

These inscriptions, often written in the standardized small seal script, served as official proclamations and provide primary historical documentation of Qin rule.

Although a work titled Zaoshi (奏事_Zòushì^Chinese), which was a collection of writings by Qin officials, is believed to have contained some of Li Si's compositions, it is no longer extant. Similarly, while the Han Shu Yi Wen Zhi (漢書藝文志_{Hànshū Yìwénzhì}^Chinese) listed some of his texts, they are not preserved today. Despite the loss of many original works, the surviving fragments and attributed inscriptions solidify Li Si's position as a significant figure in both Chinese political and literary history.