Kwŏn Kŭn

2.1. Early Life and Education

Born in 1352, Kwŏn Kŭn hailed from the influential Andong Kwon clan (안동 권씨_{Andong Gwonssi}^Korean) of Andong, Gyeongsang-do, a family with deep roots in the Goryeo court. His great-grandfather was Kwon Bu (권부_{Gwon Bu}^Korean; 1262-1346), and his grandfather was Kwŏn Ko (권고_{Gwon Go}^Korean). His father, Kwŏn Hŭi (권희_{Gwon Hui}^Korean; 1319-1405), served as Geomgyo Jeongseung, and his mother was Lady Han of the Hanyang Han clan (한양 한씨_{Hanyang Hanssi}^Korean; 1315-1398).

From an early age, Kwŏn Kŭn displayed exceptional intellectual prowess. He studied under two of Goryeo's most esteemed scholars: Yi Saek and his leading disciple, Jeong Mong-ju. He immersed himself in Zhu Xi's Neo-Confucianism, which was gaining traction in Korea. His academic excellence was evident when he passed the first level of civil service examinations (Seonggyunsi) at the age of 17 in 1368 during the 17th year of King Gongmin's reign. The following year, in 1369, at the age of 18, he successfully passed the higher civil service examination (Mun-gwa), marking the beginning of his official career. Later, he traveled to Yuan China, where he spent six years, during which he passed both the second and third levels of the Chinese civil service examinations, further solidifying his scholarly credentials.

2.2. Political Career in Late Goryeo

Upon his return to Korea, Kwŏn Kŭn embarked on a political career within the late Goryeo dynasty. He was initially appointed as Chunchugwan Geomyeol and later served as Seonggyungwan Jikgang and Yemungwan Eunggyo in 1374, the 23rd year of King Gongmin's reign. Following King Gongmin's death, Kwŏn Kŭn, alongside Jeong Mong-ju and Jeong Do-jeon, bravely advocated for a pro-Ming (친명_chinmyeong^Korean) policy, challenging the prevailing pro-Yuan (배원_baewon^Korean) sentiment. He rose through various official positions, including Jwa Saeuidaebu, Seonggyungwan Daesaseong, and Jisinsa. In 1388, during the first year of King Chang's reign, he served as Dongji Gonggeo, overseeing the civil service examinations and selecting promising individuals like Yi Eun.

However, the political landscape of late Goryeo was fraught with factionalism. In 1389, while serving as Cheomseomiljik Sasa, Kwŏn Kŭn undertook a diplomatic mission to the Ming dynasty with Munhapyeongni Yun Seung-sun. Upon their return, a document they brought from Ming became a pretext for his exile. He was accused of being part of Yi Rim's faction (Yi Rim was King Chang's maternal grandfather) and faced the threat of execution. He was saved from the gravest punishment through the intervention of Yi Seong-gye, the future King Taejo. Despite this, he was imprisoned in Cheongju with members of Yi Saek's faction. A severe flood was interpreted as an omen, leading to his pardon. During this period of exile, while in Ikju, he began writing his influential work, *Iphak toseol*. Initially, Kwŏn Kŭn was associated with the loyalist faction of Goryeo and even attempted to prevent Yi Seong-gye's rise by alerting the Ming dynasty. After his acquittal, he retired to the village of Yangchon, which inspired his pen name.

2.3. Service in the Early Joseon Dynasty

Despite his initial loyalty to Goryeo, Kwŏn Kŭn was eventually persuaded to serve the new Joseon dynasty. In 1393, the second year of King Taejo's reign, Taejo himself commissioned Kwŏn Kŭn, along with Jeong Chong, to compose the epitaph for Jeongneung. In 1396, King Taejo personally visited Kwŏn Kŭn at Jeongmunmal in Sanseong-ri, Yul-myeon, Icheon, where they engaged in political discourse on the "King's Rock." Although Kwŏn Kŭn had initially resisted cooperating with the new dynasty, this meeting marked his decision to join the Joseon government, despite facing criticism for compromising his integrity.

His early role in Joseon was somewhat constrained by the influence of Jeong Do-jeon's faction. However, after the succession struggle of 1398, which saw the demise of Jeong Do-jeon and many of his allies, Kwŏn Kŭn emerged as the most important scholar in the government until his death. During this time, he significantly influenced the education system, steering it back toward literary accomplishments.

Under King Jeongjong, he held prominent positions such as Jeongdang Munhak, Daesahon, and Chamchan Munhabusa. When Yi Bang-won ascended to the throne as King Taejong in 1401, Kwŏn Kŭn was honored as a Jwamyeong Gongsin and enfeoffed as Gilchanggun. He continued to serve in high offices, including Chanseongsa and Daejehak. Throughout his career, from his early days as Geomyeol to his final position as a high-ranking minister, Kwŏn Kŭn consistently held literary and scholarly posts, never serving in other types of official capacities. He played a crucial role in strengthening royal authority by advocating for the abolition of private armies and significantly contributed to improving Joseon's diplomatic relations with the Ming dynasty. In 1407, he served as Dokgwan-gwan (chief examiner) for the first Mun-gwa Jungsi (special civil service examination), selecting ten prominent scholars, including Byeon Gye-ryang. He also drafted the "Edict of Abdication" (Sujeon-ui Gyoseo) for King Taejong's enthronement.

3.1. Introduction and Development of Neo-Confucianism

Kwŏn Kŭn was a central figure in introducing and popularizing the Neo-Confucianism of Zhu Xi in Korea. Having studied under prominent scholars like Yi Saek and Jeong Mong-ju, who themselves were early proponents of Neo-Confucian thought, Kwŏn Kŭn became one of the first scholars to fully articulate and disseminate its principles within the Joseon context. He was instrumental in providing the intellectual and ideological framework that justified the dynastic change from Goryeo to Joseon, presenting Neo-Confucianism as a rational and moral basis for the new state. His writings served as foundational texts for subsequent generations of Korean scholars, laying the intellectual groundwork for the philosophical orientation of the Joseon literati and ensuring Neo-Confucianism's dominance.

3.2. Key Scholarly Contributions and Theories

Among Kwŏn Kŭn's extensive writings on Neo-Confucianism, his most influential work is arguably the *Iphak toseol* (입학도설_{Iphak doseol}^Korean), which translates to "Diagrammatic Treatise for Entering upon Learning" or "Diagrams and Explanations upon Entering Learning." He began this book in 1390 while in exile, creating it for students who sought his guidance with questions. This work is notable as the first academic book in Korea to incorporate diagrams to explain complex philosophical concepts, and it profoundly influenced later scholars, most notably Yi Hwang (Toegye).

Kwŏn Kŭn also produced significant commentaries on classical texts. He was entrusted by his teacher Yi Saek with the task of commenting on the *Book of Rites*. This monumental work, titled *Yegi Cheon'gyeonnok* (예기천견록_{Yegi Cheon'gyeonnok}^Korean, "Comments on the Book of Rites"), began in 1391 but was only completed in 1404. In it, he rearranged the text of the *Book of Rites* and added his own insightful commentaries alongside those of contemporary Chinese scholars. While his commentaries on other classics are now lost, his work on the *Book of Rites* highlights his deep understanding of ritual and its crucial role in establishing and maintaining social order. He also rearranged the *Classic of Music*, treating its first part as the original text and the second part as a commentary.

Beyond his contributions to Neo-Confucian exegesis, Kwŏn Kŭn was also known for his involvement in the intellectual debates of his time, including his contributions to several anti-Buddhist texts. He notably wrote the preface to Jeong Do-jeon's *Pulssi Chappyŏn* (불씨잡변_{Pulssi Chappyŏn}^Korean, "An Array of Critiques of Buddhism"), which was a strong critique of Buddhist doctrines. He also contributed to the standardization of sacrifices aimed at pacifying restless spirits, reflecting the Neo-Confucian emphasis on proper ritual and social order over what they perceived as the superstitious practices of Buddhism. His scholarship balanced a deep understanding of classical learning (Gyeonghak) with literary prowess (Munhak), making him a versatile and influential figure.

6.1. Historical and Academic Assessment

Historians and academics widely acknowledge Kwŏn Kŭn as a pivotal figure in the transition from Goryeo to Joseon. He was not merely a scholar but an architect of the Neo-Confucian ideology that provided the moral and philosophical justification for the new dynasty's establishment. His ability to synthesize classical learning (Gyeonghak) with literary excellence (Munhak) was highly regarded. His most famous work, *Iphak toseol*, is celebrated as the first academic book in Korea to utilize diagrams for explaining complex concepts, a pedagogical innovation that profoundly influenced later scholars like Yi Hwang. His deep understanding of Seongnihak (Neo-Confucianism) and his efforts to integrate its principles into the fabric of Joseon governance were crucial for the dynasty's early stability and its long-term intellectual direction. While his political maneuvering during the dynastic shift, including his initial resistance and subsequent cooperation, reflects the pragmatism required for survival in turbulent times, his ultimate commitment to establishing a stable and ideologically coherent state is a key aspect of his historical assessment.

6.2. Influence on Later Scholars and Thought

Kwŏn Kŭn's scholarship and philosophical ideas had a profound and lasting impact on the intellectual lineage of Korean Neo-Confucianism. As a direct disciple of Jeong Mong-ju, he stood as a crucial link in the transmission of Neo-Confucian thought from its early proponents to the flourishing intellectual movements of later Joseon. His influence can be traced through a prominent line of scholars:

• Early Transmission:** Baek I-jeong and An Hyang introduced Neo-Confucianism to Korea, followed by Yi Je-hyeon and Yi Saek.
• Yi Saek's Disciples:** Yi Saek taught a generation of influential scholars, including Jeong Do-jeon, Yi Sung-in, and Jeong Mong-ju.
• Kwŏn Kŭn's Direct Lineage:** Kwŏn Kŭn was a direct student of Jeong Mong-ju. His own younger brother, Kwon U (1363-1419), also studied under Jeong Mong-ju and later became a teacher to Sejong the Great, linking Kwŏn Kŭn's intellectual circle directly to the future monarch who would usher in a golden age of Korean culture and science.
• Gim Jong-jik's School:** Another significant lineage stemming from Jeong Mong-ju was through Gil Jae, whose student Kim Suk-ja taught Kim Jong-jik. Kim Jong-jik's disciples, known as the Sarim faction, became a dominant force in Joseon intellectual and political life. This lineage includes:
  • Jeong Yeo-chang (1450-1504)
  • Kim Gyeong-pil (1454-1504), who taught Jo Gwang-jo (1482-1519), a key reformist figure. Jo Gwang-jo's influence extended to Baek In-geol and eventually to Yi I (Yulgok).
  • Seong Su-chim, who taught Seong Hon (Ugye).
  • Yi Yeon-gyeong
  • Kim An-guk
  • Kim Jeong-guk
  • Yi Sim-won (Jukye Bujeong Yi Sim-won)
  • Kim Il-son
  • Kim Jeon
  • Nam Gon

  This intricate web of intellectual connections demonstrates Kwŏn Kŭn's foundational role in transmitting and solidifying Neo-Confucian thought, making him an indispensable figure in the intellectual history of Joseon Korea.