James Stockdale

3.1. Flight training and test pilot

On June 5, 1946, Stockdale graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree from the U.S. Naval Academy as part of the Class of 1947, a result of the reduced schedule still in effect from World War II. He ranked 130th among 821 graduates in his class. His initial assignments included serving as an assistant gunnery officer aboard the destroyer minesweeper USS Carmick (DD-493) from June to October 1946. He subsequently served on the USS Thompson (DD-627) from October 1946 to February 1947, the USS Charles H. Roan (DD-853) from February 1947 to July 1948, and the USS Deming (PCS-1392) from July 1948 to June 1949.

In June 1949, Stockdale was accepted for flight training and reported to Naval Air Station Pensacola in Florida. He was officially designated a Naval Aviator at Naval Air Station Corpus Christi in Texas in September 1950. He then underwent additional training at Naval Air Station Norfolk in Virginia from October 1950 to January 1951. In January 1954, he was accepted into the United States Naval Test Pilot School at the Naval Air Station Patuxent River base in Southern Maryland, completing his training in July of the same year. During his time there, he tutored U.S. Marine Corps aviator John Glenn in mathematics and physics. Stockdale served as a test pilot until January 1957.

3.2. Higher education and philosophical study

In 1959, the U.S. Navy sent Stockdale to Stanford University, where he earned a Master of Arts degree in international relations in 1962, also studying Marxism. Although Stockdale preferred the dynamic life of a fighter pilot over academia, he later credited his exposure to Stoic philosophy during this period with providing him crucial strength to cope with the extreme conditions he faced as a prisoner of war. In 1962, he received individual philosophy tutoring from Professor Philip H. Rhinelander at Stanford, who introduced him to the Stoic philosophy of the ancient Roman philosopher Epictetus. Epictetus, who rose from the adversity of being a slave under Emperor Nero, became a profound influence on Stockdale, who later stated that Epictetus's teachings helped him survive his captivity.

3.3. Vietnam War

During the Vietnam War, James Stockdale was involved in significant military operations, including the controversial Gulf of Tonkin Incident, before being captured and enduring a prolonged and brutal period as a prisoner of war.

3.3.1. Gulf of Tonkin Incident

On August 2, 1964, while on a DESOTO patrol in the Gulf of Tonkin, the destroyer USS Maddox (DD-731) engaged three North Vietnamese Navy P-4 torpedo boats from the 135th Torpedo Squadron. After a running gun and torpedo battle, during which Maddox fired over 280 five-inch shells and the torpedo boats expended their six torpedoes (all misses) and hundreds of rounds of 0.6 in ^{(14.5 mm)} machine gun fire, the combatants broke contact. The torpedo boats' communication systems were also damaged, leading to a loss of contact. As the torpedo boats turned towards the North Vietnamese coastline, four F-8 Crusader fighter aircraft from USS Ticonderoga (CV-14) arrived and immediately attacked the retreating vessels. Stockdale, then commander of VF-51 (Fighter Squadron 51), along with Lieutenant (Junior Grade) Richard Hastings, attacked torpedo boats T-333 and T-336. Meanwhile, Commander R. F. Mohrhardt and Lieutenant Commander C. E. Southwick attacked torpedo boat T-339. The four F-8 pilots reported no hits with their Zuni rockets but claimed hits on all three torpedo boats with their 0.8 in ^{(20 mm)} cannons.

Two nights later, on August 4, 1964, Stockdale was flying overhead during the second reported attack in the Gulf of Tonkin. Unlike the first event, which was an actual sea battle, Stockdale later believed that no Vietnamese forces were involved in the second engagement. In the early 1990s, he recounted his observations: "I had the best seat in the house to watch that event, and our destroyers were just shooting at phantom targets-there were no PT boats there. ... There was nothing there but black water and American fire power." Stockdale stated that his superiors ordered him to keep this information confidential, a secret that became a heavy burden for him during his later captivity.

The next morning, on August 5, 1964, President Johnson ordered bombing raids on North Vietnamese military targets, which he announced were retaliation for the alleged incident of August 4. When Stockdale was awakened in the early morning and told he was to lead these attacks, he famously responded: "Retaliation for what?" This incident later caused him concern as a prisoner of war, fearing he would be forced to reveal this secret about the Vietnam War.

3.3.2. Prisoner of War (POW) experience

On September 9, 1965, while flying as the Carrier Air Wing Sixteen Commander from USS Oriskany (CV-34) on a mission over North Vietnam, Stockdale's Douglas A-4 Skyhawk jet was struck by enemy fire and completely disabled. Then 42 years old, he ejected from the aircraft and parachuted into a small village, where he was severely beaten by angry villagers and taken prisoner.

Stockdale was held as a prisoner of war in the Hỏa Lò Prison (infamously known as the "Hanoi Hilton") for approximately 7.5 years. As the most senior naval officer among the prisoners, he became one of the primary organizers of prisoner resistance efforts. He was routinely subjected to torture and denied medical attention for a severely damaged leg he sustained during his capture, which was broken twice due to torture. Despite his injuries, Stockdale created and enforced a code of conduct for all prisoners, governing their responses to torture, methods of secret communication, and overall behavior.

In the summer of 1969, he was placed in leg irons in a bath stall and routinely tortured and beaten. When his captors informed him that he was to be paraded in public for propaganda purposes, Stockdale deliberately slit his scalp with a razor to disfigure himself, making it impossible for them to use his image. When they attempted to cover his head with a hat, he beat himself with a stool until his face was swollen beyond recognition, effectively communicating his defiance. On another occasion, when Stockdale was discovered with information that could implicate his friends' so-called "black activities," he slit his wrists to prevent his captors from torturing him into confession, choosing death over submission.

During the early period of Stockdale's captivity, his wife, Sybil Stockdale, played a pivotal role in organizing The League of American Families of POWs and MIAs alongside other wives of servicemen in similar circumstances. By 1968, she and her organization garnered significant attention from the American press by publicly demanding that the president and the U.S. Congress acknowledge the mistreatment of POWs, a fact that had been largely unaddressed despite overwhelming evidence. Sybil Stockdale personally presented these demands at the Paris Peace Talks.

3.4. Return to the United States

James Stockdale was released as a prisoner of war on February 12, 1973, as part of Operation Homecoming. Upon his return to the United States, he was severely debilitated by his captivity and mistreatment. His shoulder was dislocated, his legs were badly damaged from beatings and torture, and he had a broken spine. He could not stand upright and could barely walk, which prevented his return to active flying status.

On March 4, 1976, Stockdale received the Medal of Honor for his extraordinary valor and leadership during his imprisonment. Following his return, Stockdale filed charges against two other officers, Marine Corps Lieutenant Colonel Edison W. Miller and Navy Captain Walter E. "Gene" Wilber, whom he believed had given aid and comfort to the enemy. However, the Department of the Navy, under the leadership of then-Secretary of the Navy John Warner, took no direct action against them, instead retiring these men "in the best interests of the Navy." Both Miller and Wilber subsequently received letters of censure or reprimand.

In deference to his previous service and in recognition of his superior intellect, the Navy kept Stockdale on active duty despite his physical limitations. He was steadily promoted over the next few years before retiring as a vice admiral on September 1, 1979.

3.5. Post-war service

Vice Admiral Stockdale completed his active naval career by serving as the president of the Naval War College at Newport, Rhode Island, from October 13, 1977, until August 22, 1979. After his retirement from the Navy in 1979, he became the president of The Citadel, a military college in South Carolina. His tenure there was brief and contentious, as he found himself at odds with the college's board and much of its administration due to his proposals for radical changes to the college's military system and other aspects of its operations. He ultimately left The Citadel due to these controversies.

4.1. Academic work and writings

Following his departure from The Citadel, Stockdale became a fellow of the Hoover Institution at Stanford University in 1981. During his twelve-year tenure at the Hoover Institution, he wrote and lectured extensively. His primary academic focus was on ancient Stoicism and the Roman slave-turned-philosopher Epictetus, whose lessons, particularly those captured in The Enchiridion, Stockdale credited with providing him immense strength during his ordeals as a prisoner in the Hanoi Hilton. Between 1981 and 1988, Stockdale also served as the chair of the White House Fellows under the Reagan administration.

In 1984, Stockdale and his wife Sybil co-authored In Love and War: The Story of a Family's Ordeal and Sacrifice During the Vietnam War, which was published by Harper and Row. This book recounts Stockdale's experiences while imprisoned in Vietnam. In alternating chapters, it also details Sybil Stockdale's early involvement in the League of American Families of POWs and MIAs, an organization she helped to found and served as its first chairperson. Their compelling story was later adapted into an NBC television movie titled In Love and War in 1987, starring James Woods and Jane Alexander.

Stockdale was also a member of the board of directors of the Rockford Institute and a frequent contributor to Chronicles: A magazine of American Culture.

4.2. Vice presidential candidacy

Stockdale first became acquainted with businessman and presidential candidate Ross Perot through his wife Sybil's work in establishing an organization to represent the families of Vietnam POWs. On March 30, 1992, Perot publicly announced that he had asked Stockdale to serve as the provisional vice presidential candidate on his independent ticket for the 1992 election. Perot initially intended to replace Stockdale with another candidate, but he did not do so before temporarily withdrawing from the race in July 1992. When Perot re-entered the race in the fall of 1992, Stockdale remained his vice presidential running mate.

Stockdale's participation in the October 13 vice presidential debate held in Atlanta, Georgia, was unexpected; he was not informed that he would be participating until just one week before the event. Unlike his opponents, Al Gore and Dan Quayle, Stockdale had no formal preparation for the debate and did not discuss any political issues with Perot beforehand.

Stockdale opened the debate by famously saying, "Who am I? Why am I here?", which he intended as a rhetorical question to introduce himself and his unique background to the audience. Initially, these questions drew applause. However, his perceived unfocused manner throughout the rest of the debate, including an instance where he asked the moderator, Hal Bruno, to repeat a question because he did not have his hearing aid turned on, led to a public perception of him as confused and disoriented. A humorous caricature of the debate on Saturday Night Live later that week, with Phil Hartman portraying Stockdale, solidified this public image of him as slow-witted. He was also frequently parodied for his repeated use of the term "gridlock" to describe slow governmental policy.

For many American voters who had not previously heard of him, the debate served as their introduction to Stockdale, and it proved to be disastrous for his public image. He was widely portrayed in the media as elderly and confused, and his reputation never fully recovered from this portrayal. In a 1999 interview with Jim Lehrer, Stockdale explained that his opening statements were an attempt to introduce himself and his extraordinary personal history to the television audience:
"It was terribly frustrating because I remember I started with, 'Who am I? Why am I here?' and I never got back to that because there was never an opportunity for me to explain my life to people. It was so different from Quayle and Gore. The four years in solitary confinement in Vietnam, seven-and-a-half years in prisons, drop the first bomb that started the... American bombing raid in the North Vietnam. We blew the oil storage tanks of them off the map. And I never-I couldn't approach-I don't say it just to brag, but, I mean, my sensitivities are completely different."

In a 1994 HBO comedy special, comedian Dennis Miller offered an impassioned defense of Stockdale's debate performance, highlighting his distinguished military service and the sacrifices he made:
"Now I know (Stockdale's name has) become a buzzword in this culture for doddering old man, but let's look at the record, folks. The guy was the first guy in and the last guy out of Vietnam, a war that many Americans, including your new President, chose not to dirty their hands with. He had to turn his hearing aid on at that debate because those fucking animals knocked his eardrums out when he wouldn't spill his guts. He teaches philosophy at Stanford University, he's a brilliant, sensitive, courageous man. And yet he committed the one unpardonable sin in our culture: he was bad on television."

Despite the public perception issues, the Perot-Stockdale ticket received 18.9% of the popular vote in the 1992 presidential election, making it one of the best showings by an independent ticket in U.S. electoral history, although they did not carry any states.

5.1. Medal of Honor citation

Stockdale's official Medal of Honor citation reads:

"For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while senior naval officer in the Prisoner of War camps of North Vietnam. Recognized by his captors as the leader in the Prisoners' of War resistance to interrogation and in their refusal to participate in propaganda exploitation, Rear Adm. Stockdale was singled out for interrogation and attendant torture after he was detected in a covert communications attempt. Sensing the start of another purge, and aware that his earlier efforts at self-disfiguration to dissuade his captors from exploiting him for propaganda purposes had resulted in cruel and agonizing punishment, Rear Adm. Stockdale resolved to make himself a symbol of resistance regardless of personal sacrifice. He deliberately inflicted a near-mortal wound to his person in order to convince his captors of his willingness to give up his life rather than capitulate. He was subsequently discovered and revived by the North Vietnamese who, convinced of his indomitable spirit, abated in their employment of excessive harassment and torture toward all of the Prisoners of War. By his heroic action, at great peril to himself, he earned the everlasting gratitude of his fellow prisoners and of his country. Rear Adm. Stockdale's valiant leadership and extraordinary courage in a hostile environment sustain and enhance the finest traditions of the U.S. Naval Service."

9.1. Commemorations and tributes

Several honors, institutions, and structures have been named in memory of James Stockdale, recognizing his contributions and character:

• The Vice Admiral James Bond Stockdale Award for Inspirational Leadership is a United States Navy award established in 1980 by United States Secretary of the Navy Edward Hidalgo to honor Stockdale's inspirational leadership. The award was first presented in 1981.
• The U.S. Navy named an Arleigh Burke-class guided missile destroyer, USS Stockdale (DDG-106), in his honor. The ship was christened on May 10, 2008.
• At the Naval Air Station North Island in Coronado, California, both the main gate (inaugurated on August 30, 2007) and the headquarters building for the Pacific Fleet's Survival, Evasion, Resistance and Escape (SERE) school were named in his honor.
• In July 2008, a statue of Stockdale was erected in front of Luce Hall at the U.S. Naval Academy. This hall houses the Vice Admiral James B. Stockdale Center for Ethical Leadership, a testament to his influence on military ethics.
• In 1976, he received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.
• The Stockdale Center, the student center at Monmouth College in Monmouth, Illinois, which he briefly attended, was dedicated in his honor in 1989.
• He was enshrined in the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 2002.
• The Admiral James & Sybil Stockdale Arena at South Kent School was named after Stockdale and his wife in April 2014.
• In October 2014, Airbase Arizona of the Commemorative Air Force placed on display a restored Grumman AF-2S Guardian (BuNo 126731) that Stockdale had flown early in his naval career, featuring his name on the canopy rail and all original markings from the 1950s.
• A luxury suite at the Loews Annapolis Hotel, where Ross Perot announced his presidential candidacy, was named in Stockdale's honor.
• The Abingdon-Avon High School Auditorium in Abingdon, Illinois, has been named "Stockdale Auditorium" in his honor.

9.2. Influence on leadership and philosophy

Stockdale's naval experiences, particularly his leadership decisions as the senior naval officer in the North Vietnamese prison camps, are an integral part of every midshipman's educational experience at the Naval Academy in Annapolis. His insights into moral courage and resilience under extreme duress have become foundational to military education and leadership development.

His philosophical contributions are also significant. The book Foundations of Moral Obligation: The Stockdale Course (1994) by Joseph Gerard Brennan is based on a series of lectures delivered for a course in moral philosophy that Stockdale established at the Naval War College in 1978, during his presidency. The course was designed by Stockdale and Professor Joseph Brennan, who continued to teach it after Stockdale's retirement. Stockdale himself wrote the foreword to the book, further cementing his influence on the popularization of Stoic principles for resilience and ethical conduct in modern contexts.