Hyeonjong of Goryeo

2.1. Birth and Parentage

Wang Sun was born on August 1, 992, as the son of Prince Wang Uk (posthumously honored as Anjong) and his widowed niece, Queen Heonjeong (posthumously honored as Hyosuk Wangtaehu). This union was considered an illicit affair, as Queen Heonjeong was the fourth queen of the previous monarch, King Gyeongjong, and remarriage for a widowed queen was forbidden. Prince Wang Uk was a son of King Taejo, while Queen Heonjeong was a granddaughter of Taejo through his son Wang Uk (not Prince Wang Uk, Hyeonjong's father). Their relationship meant they were uncle and niece.

According to a legend, before Wang Sun's birth, Queen Heonjeong dreamt she ascended a high peak and urinated, causing the liquid to flood the entire country and transform into a silver sea. A fortune-teller interpreted this dream to mean she would bear a son who would become king and rule the nation. Despite her skepticism as a widow, the prophecy came true. The affair came to light when a slave set fire to Prince Wang Uk's house in an attempt to conceal the pregnancy. Upon discovering Queen Heonjeong's pregnancy, King Seongjong (Hyeonjong's maternal uncle and cousin to his mother) exiled Prince Wang Uk to Sasu-hyeon (modern-day Sacheon). Shortly after Prince Wang Uk's exile, Queen Heonjeong gave birth to Wang Sun and tragically died on the same day.

2.2. Early Hardships and Assassination Attempts

Following his mother's death, the infant Wang Sun was initially raised by a wet nurse under King Seongjong's care in the palace. Records state that when Wang Sun was brought before King Seongjong, he crawled onto Seongjong's lap and called him "father," moving the king to tears. However, King Seongjong later decided it was best for Wang Sun to be with his father, Prince Wang Uk, in exile. Wang Sun lived with his father in Sasu-hyeon until Prince Wang Uk's death in 996. The following year, in 997, Wang Sun returned to Kaesong, the capital, and was placed under the protection of King Seongjong and his second wife, Queen Munhwa, who also raised Wang Song (later King Mokjong).

When King Seongjong died in 997, Wang Song ascended as King Mokjong. Although Mokjong was an adult, he appointed his mother, Queen Dowager Cheonchu (also known as Queen Heon-ae), as regent. Queen Dowager Cheonchu, who had a lover named Kim Ch'i-yang, secretly bore a son in 1003. She conspired with Kim Ch'i-yang to place their son on the throne, as King Mokjong had no male heir. Wang Sun, as the legitimate heir to the childless King Mokjong, became a threat to their plans. Consequently, Queen Dowager Cheonchu and Kim Ch'i-yang repeatedly attempted to assassinate Wang Sun.

In 1003, Wang Sun was forced to become a monk and was sent to Sunggyosa Temple. When assassins frequently targeted him there, he was moved to Sinhyolsa Temple (now Jingwansa in Seoul) in 1006 with the help of King Mokjong and other monks. The abbot of Sinhyolsa, Jin-gwan, protected Wang Sun by digging an underground tunnel for him to hide in during attacks, cleverly placing a bed over the entrance to conceal it. Wang Sun's half-sister, Princess Seongmokjang, also frequently visited Hyeonhwasa Temple to pray for their parents, indicating continued family support despite his precarious situation.

2.3. Kang Cho's Coup and Enthronement

In 1009, Kang Cho, the military inspector of Seobukmyeon, was summoned by King Mokjong to suppress a rebellion orchestrated by Kim Ch'i-yang. However, Kang Cho instead staged a coup, overthrowing King Mokjong. On March 2, 1009, Kang Cho executed Kim Ch'i-yang, his six-year-old son, and their faction, including Yi Ju-jeong. King Mokjong, Queen Seonjeong, and Queen Dowager Cheonchu were exiled to Chungju. King Mokjong was subsequently assassinated by Kang Cho's subordinates in Jeokseong-myeon, Paju, on his way to Chungju. Queen Seonjeong is believed to have been killed alongside him. Queen Dowager Cheonchu was released and went to live in Hwangju.

Following the coup, Kang Cho consolidated his power, merging various government bodies into the newly established Jungdaeseong and appointing himself its head. On March 2, 1009, at the age of 18, Wang Sun was enthroned as Hyeonjong, with the support of Kang Cho and other officials like Choe Hang and Chae Chung-sun. Hyeonjong posthumously honored his father, Prince Wang Uk, as King Anjong and his mother, Queen Heonjeong, as Queen Heonjeong Wangtaehu. They were interred together in Wolleung Tomb. Hyeonjong also appointed two daughters of King Seongjong, Queen Wonjeong and Queen Wonhwa, as his first and second wives, respectively. Initially, Kang Cho held significant de facto power, controlling the court from February 1009 until November 1010.

3.1. First Khitan Invasion (1010-1011)

In the autumn of 1010, the Khitan Liao Dynasty, led by Emperor Shengzong himself, launched a massive invasion of Goryeo, using Kang Cho's coup and the deposition of King Mokjong as a pretext. The true motivations included severing Goryeo's ties with the Song dynasty and reclaiming the six fortresses east of the Yalu River that Goryeo had retained after the 993 negotiations. Goryeo sources claim the Liao army numbered 400,000, with key generals like Han Deok-nyang, Xiao Pai-ya, and Yelü Ben-nu accompanying Emperor Shengzong.

Hyeonjong immediately appointed Yang Kyu, the Hyungbu Langjung, as the Dosun Geomsa of Seobukmyeon, tasking him with defending Heunghwjin Fortress and delaying the Khitan forces. Yang Kyu, with only 3,000 Goryeo soldiers, bravely defended Heunghwjin for seven days against the initial Khitan assault, refusing to surrender. Emperor Shengzong, unable to capture the fortress, left a portion of his army to besiege it and personally led the main force of over 300,000 south. Yang Kyu dispatched Ha Gong-jin to inform the capital of the Khitan's advance.

The Khitan army then advanced to Dongju Fortress, where Kang Cho, Yi Hyon-un, and Jang Yeonu awaited with 300,000 Goryeo troops. Kang Cho set an ambush in a narrow pass. In the initial engagement, Kang Cho and Yi Hyon-un led three Goryeo divisions, inflicting 10,000 casualties on the Khitan and forcing them to retreat. However, in a subsequent attack on Dongju, Kang Cho became overconfident, playing Go instead of preparing defenses. Yelü Ben-nu, informed by a former subordinate of Kang Cho, launched a surprise attack on Kang Cho's camp outside Dongju. The Goryeo forces were routed, 30,000 Goryeo soldiers were killed, and Kang Cho, Yi Hyon-un, and No Jeon were captured. Jang Yeonu retreated with the remnants of his forces to Kaesong.

Kang Cho and Yi Hyon-un were brought before Emperor Shengzong, who offered them positions in the Liao court. Yi Hyon-un accepted, but Kang Cho defiantly refused, leading to his execution by beheading in Kaesong on December 31, 1010. Emperor Shengzong then sent No Jeon with a forged order from Kang Cho, demanding Yang Kyu's surrender at Heunghwjin. Yang Kyu refused, stating he only obeyed the Goryeo king. The Khitan emperor also spread news of Kang Cho's capture to demoralize the Goryeo defenders, but Heunghwjin and Dongju continued to resist.

Emperor Shengzong bypassed Dongju and continued his southward advance, capturing Gwakju, Anbukbu, Anyung, Mingju, Sukju, and Jaju before reaching Seogyeong (Pyongyang). There, General Dae Do-su, over 70 years old and a descendant of Balhae royalty, defended the city. He planned a joint attack with Tak Sachong, but Tak Sachong failed to provide support, leading to Dae Do-su's capture and the fall of Seogyeong. His son Dae Hyong-in and grandson Dae Hong-yun continued to live in Goryeo. Tak Sachong fled to Kaesong.

The Khitan army pressed on to Hwangju, where Queen Dowager Cheonchu led local militias in fierce resistance. Despite reinforcements from Haeju, she was forced to retreat. The Khitan captured Hwangju, then Tongju, and finally Pyongju, the gateway to Kaesong. The capital, Kaesong, was eventually captured and burned by the Khitan, including the Naseong wall built by Yi Ja-rim. Hyeonjong, urged by Kang Gam-chan, fled the burning capital with his court, including Queen Wonjeong and Queen Wonhwa, moving south to Naju in Jeolla-do. During his flight, he stayed at the home of Kim Eun-bu in Gongju, who treated him warmly and offered his eldest daughter, later Queen Wonseong, to serve the king. Hyeonjong also met Kim Eun-bu's other daughters, later Queen Wonhye and Queen Wonpyeong, and subsequently married them.

Meanwhile, Yang Kyu, with 700 men from Heunghwjin and 1,000 remnants from Dongju, recaptured Gwakju, cutting off the Khitan's retreat. He rescued 7,000 Goryeo prisoners and relocated them. In early February 1011, Emperor Shengzong planned to withdraw. Yang Kyu relentlessly attacked the retreating Khitan, rescuing 2,000 prisoners at Murodae, 1,000 at Sŏngnyŏng, and another 1,000 at Yŏrich'am, while inflicting heavy casualties. Yang Kyu and Kim Suk-heung then ambushed the Khitan vanguard at Aejŏn on March 5, 1011, rescuing more prisoners and attempting to kill Emperor Shengzong, who narrowly escaped. Although Yang Kyu and Kim Suk-heung were ultimately killed in a final engagement after running out of arrows, their forces killed 6,500 Khitan and rescued 30,000 Goryeo prisoners during seven battles in one month.

Hyeonjong promised to re-establish tributary relations with Liao if they withdrew. Faced with Goryeo's persistent resistance and the drain on resources, Emperor Shengzong's forces retreated in February 1011 without significant territorial gains. After the war, Hyeonjong, Queen Wonjeong, Queen Wonhwa, Kang Gam-chan, Jang Yeonu, Tak Sachong, and Ha Gong-jin returned to Kaesong, followed by Queen Wonseong and Queen Wonhye. Queen Dowager Cheonchu returned to Hwangju. Jang Yeonu was appointed Pan-eosa-daesa for his service during the flight.

3.2. Second Khitan Invasion (1018-1019)

Following the first invasion, Goryeo refused to cede the northern territories or fully submit to the Liao. This led to a decade of border skirmishes and preparations for renewed conflict. Goryeo began constructing the Cheollim Jangseong (Thousand-li Wall), a defensive structure nearly 1.00 K li (approximately 249 mile ^{(400 km)}) long and 24 ft high, connecting various fortresses from Uiju to Hwaju.

In 1014, a dispute arose over military stipends. Jang Yeonu and Hwangbo Yuui proposed reducing military land grants to address a budget deficit, angering military officials. Generals Choe Chil and Kim Hun launched a military rebellion, seizing control of the Kaesong court. Hyeonjong was rescued by Kang Gam-chan, while Jang Yeonu and Hwangbo Yuui were expelled. In 1015, Hyeonjong, with the help of loyal Goryeo forces, suppressed the rebellion. Choe Chil and Kim Hun were killed, and the civilian government was restored. Jang Yeonu was posthumously honored.

From 1015 to 1017, the Liao Dynasty launched continuous attacks on Goryeo's six eastern fortresses, but Goryeo successfully defended them. In 1015, Hyeonjong promoted his father-in-law, Kim Eun-bu, for his assistance during the first invasion. In 1016, Kim Eun-bu was further promoted to Hobu Sangseo, and his daughter, Queen Wonseong, was granted the title of Yeon-gyeong-won-ju. Kim Eun-bu died in 1017. Hyeonjong also bestowed royal titles upon the maternal relatives of his second wife, Queen Wonhwa.

In December 1018, the Khitan launched their second major invasion, with 100,000 troops led by General Xiao Pai-ya, crossing a newly built bridge over the Yalu River. Many Goryeo officials urged peace due to the heavy losses from the previous war. However, the 71-year-old Kang Gam-chan, who had no prior military experience as a civil official, advised Hyeonjong to fight, noting the Khitan's numerical disadvantage compared to previous invasions. Kang Gam-chan volunteered to lead the Goryeo army of approximately 208,000, with Kang Min-chom as his deputy.

3.2.1. Battle of Guju

Near Heunghwjin, Kang Gam-chan ordered the construction of a dam to block a small stream. As the Khitan army, led by Xiao Pai-ya, was halfway across, Kang Gam-chan ordered the dam destroyed, releasing a torrent of water that engulfed a large portion of the Khitan forces. Kang Gam-chan and Kang Min-chom then attacked with 12,000 Goryeo cavalry, inflicting heavy casualties and cutting off the Khitan's retreat. Despite these losses, Xiao Pai-ya continued his advance towards Kaesong, enduring constant harassment from Goryeo's defending forces, including local militias led by Queen Dowager Cheonchu.

The Khitan army bypassed Seogyeong and reached Hwangju, where Queen Dowager Cheonchu's militias continued to harass them. The Khitan then advanced to Tongju and finally to Kaesong, but were again repelled by Kang Gam-chan's forces. Kang Gam-chan and Kang Min-chom then cut off the Khitan's supply lines and maintained continuous harassment. Exhausted and demoralized, Xiao Pai-ya decided to retreat north.

Anticipating their route, Kang Gam-chan and Kang Min-chom positioned their forces at Guju Fortress. On March 10, 1019, they launched a decisive attack on the retreating Khitan army. The demoralized and starving Khitan forces, estimated at over 90,000, were almost completely annihilated by the Goryeo army (which numbered around 12,000). Many Khitan soldiers surrendered along the riverbanks. Only Xiao Pai-ya and a few thousand Khitan soldiers managed to escape the devastating defeat at Guju and return to Liao territory. The Battle of Guju, alongside the Battle of Salsu (612) and the Battle of Hansando (1592), is considered one of the three greatest victories in Korean history.

Kang Gam-chan returned to Kaesong as a national hero. The surrendered Khitan soldiers were settled in isolated, guarded communities within Goryeo, valued for their skills in hunting, butchery, and tanning. Over subsequent centuries, these communities evolved into the Baekjeong, the lowest social class in Goryeo. The Liao Dynasty never again invaded Goryeo during Hyeonjong's reign, leading to a period of peace and cultural prosperity for both empires.

4.1. Strengthening Royal Authority

Hyeonjong faced the challenge of reasserting royal authority after the instability caused by Kang Cho's coup and the subsequent military conflicts. He actively worked to centralize power and regulate local factions. This included measures to control powerful aristocratic and military groups that had gained influence during the periods of turmoil. A notable instance was the suppression of the rebellion led by generals Choe Chil and Kim Hun in 1014. When these military officials protested the reduction of their land grants (영업전_{yeongyeopjeon}^Korean) due to increased military expenses, they assaulted civilian officials Jang Yeonu and Hwangbo Yuui in front of Hyeonjong. Although Hyeonjong initially conceded to their demands for higher ranks for military officials, he later conspired with Yi Ja-rim to eliminate the rebellious generals. In 1015, high-ranking military officials were invited to a banquet in Seogyeong, where they were ambushed and killed after becoming intoxicated. This decisive action, which resulted in the deaths of 19 generals, firmly re-established civilian control over the military and solidified royal power.

4.2. Administrative and Legal Reforms

Hyeonjong implemented significant reforms to the governmental structure and administrative practices. In 1022, he simplified the titles of local officials, designating "Hojang" (호장_Hojang^Korean) for counties and prefectures and "Jang" (장_Jang^Korean) for hyang and bugok areas. In 1024, he oversaw the expansion and reorganization of the capital, Kaesong, into 5 departments, 35 districts, and 314 ri (administrative units). He also posthumously honored Confucian scholars Seolchong and Choe Chi-won, enshrining them in Munmyo (Confucian shrine) for the first time, reflecting his support for Confucianism. Furthermore, he established the 조성도감_Joseongdogam^Korean and, in 1029, ordered the construction of a massive outer wall (Naseong) around Kaesong, extending 14 mile ^{(23 km)}, to fortify the capital against future invasions. In August 1011, he also commanded the expansion of the imperial palace in Kaesong and the construction of a new imperial palace in Jangnakgung, honoring the legacy of King Taejo.

4.3. Economic Policies

Hyeonjong's economic policies aimed at stabilizing the kingdom's finances and promoting agricultural productivity after the wars. He actively encouraged agriculture and sericulture (농상_nongsang^Korean), implemented the 감목양마법_{Gammokyangmabeop}^Korean for livestock management, and worked to ensure equitable taxation. He also introduced the 양창수렴법_{Yangchangsurimbeop}^Korean, a system for managing and collecting grain in public granaries, which helped in economic stabilization and disaster relief. His efforts to balance the economy were crucial for the post-war recovery.

4.4. Revival of State and Religious Ceremonies

Hyeonjong played a key role in the revival of important state and religious ceremonies that had been neglected or abolished in previous reigns. He restored the Yeon-deung-hoe (Lantern Festival) and Palgwan-hoe (Eight Vows Festival), both significant Buddhist festivals that also incorporated elements of native Korean beliefs. These festivals were important for national unity and spiritual well-being. He also promoted Buddhism by ordering the compilation of the Tripitaka Koreana and initiating the construction of Hyeonhwasa, a major Buddhist temple. Simultaneously, his support for Confucianism, as evidenced by the enshrinement of scholars in Munmyo, demonstrated a balanced approach to cultural and ideological development.

5.1. Compilation of the Tripitaka Koreana

One of Hyeonjong's most enduring cultural legacies was the initiation of the first compilation of the Tripitaka Koreana. This monumental undertaking involved carving over 6,000 volumes of Buddhist scriptures onto woodblocks. The primary purpose of this massive project, which began in 1018, was to invoke the Buddha's help and bring about a change in fortune for Goryeo, specifically to repel the Khitan invasions. This act of carving the woodblocks was believed to be a spiritual endeavor that would solicit divine protection. The resulting collection of Buddhist doctrines was not only a significant religious artifact but also a testament to the high level of craftsmanship and dedication in Goryeo, representing one of the most comprehensive and aesthetically valuable sets of Buddhist texts in the world.

5.2. Patronage of Buddhism and Confucianism

Hyeonjong demonstrated a balanced patronage of both Buddhism and Confucianism, recognizing their importance to the spiritual and intellectual fabric of Goryeo society. He actively supported Buddhist institutions, exemplified by his order to construct the Hyeonhwasa Temple, a major center for the Goryeo Buddhist establishment. This patronage helped to revitalize Buddhism, which had been a significant cultural and political force since the kingdom's founding. Simultaneously, Hyeonjong also promoted Confucianism. He posthumously honored prominent Confucian scholars like Seolchong and Choe Chi-won, granting them titles and enshrining them in Munmyo (문묘_Munmyo^Korean), the national Confucian shrine. This act marked a precedent for honoring Confucian intellectuals and underscored the growing influence of Confucian thought in Goryeo's governance and intellectual life, reflecting a dual approach to cultural development.

6.1. Ancestry and Parents

Hyeonjong's lineage was deeply intertwined with the founding figures of the Goryeo dynasty.

• Father**: Anjong (Wang Uk, died 996), a son of King Taejo. He was posthumously honored as a king.
• Mother**: Queen Heonjeong (Hwangbo clan, died 992), a daughter of Daejong (Wang Uk, a son of King Taejo and Queen Sinjeong) and Queen Seonui. She was originally the fourth queen of King Gyeongjong. After Gyeongjong's death, she had an illicit affair with Prince Wang Uk, leading to Hyeonjong's birth. She was posthumously honored as Hyosuk Wangtaehu.

6.2. Consorts

Hyeonjong had a total of 13 consorts, including 7 queens and 6 royal consorts/palace ladies.

6.3. Issue

Hyeonjong had numerous children, including three sons who would later ascend to the Goryeo throne.

7.1. Evaluation of Reign

Hyeonjong's reign is largely assessed as successful, particularly for his leadership during the Khitan-Goryeo Wars. Despite the initial setbacks, including the temporary loss of the capital, his steadfastness and strategic acumen, coupled with the military genius of generals like Kang Gam-chan and Yang Kyu, ensured Goryeo's survival and independence. He effectively repelled two major invasions, preventing the Khitan from achieving their territorial demands and securing Goryeo's northern borders. His ability to rally the kingdom after periods of chaos, consolidate royal authority, and manage powerful internal factions demonstrated strong governance. The subsequent period of peace allowed for internal development and cultural flourishing. Historians generally view Hyeonjong as a resilient and capable monarch who laid the foundation for Goryeo's future stability and prosperity.

7.2. Social and Cultural Impact

Hyeonjong's achievements had a profound social and cultural impact on Goryeo. The successful defense against the Khitan invasions fostered a stronger sense of national identity and unity among the Goryeo people. The monumental project of carving the first Tripitaka Koreana not only served a religious purpose but also became a symbol of national resilience and cultural pride. His patronage of both Buddhism and Confucianism contributed to a rich intellectual and spiritual environment. The revival of traditional ceremonies like Yeon-deung-hoe and Palgwan-hoe helped to restore social cohesion and cultural traditions that had been disrupted by warfare. The construction of the outer wall around Kaesong also symbolized the kingdom's renewed strength and determination to protect its capital.

7.3. Criticisms and Controversies

While Hyeonjong's reign is generally lauded, certain aspects present complexities. His accession to the throne was a direct result of Kang Cho's coup, an act that involved the deposition and assassination of his predecessor, King Mokjong. This violent seizure of power, though ultimately beneficial for Goryeo's defense against the Khitan, was a controversial event. Furthermore, his early life was marred by political persecution and assassination attempts orchestrated by Queen Dowager Cheonchu and Kim Ch'i-yang, highlighting the ruthless nature of Goryeo court politics. The suppression of the military rebellion led by Choe Chil and Kim Hun, while necessary for consolidating royal authority, involved a deceptive strategy to eliminate the generals, which could be viewed critically. The complex political landscape of his early life and accession underscores the precariousness of power during this period.